tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-83076408948814896702024-03-15T06:21:17.518-07:00Silk in S IndiaThis new site is for postings for 'Silk production in South India: an evaluative history of development schemes, 1790s to 1990s', supported in 2008-2010 by the British Academy.Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.comBlogger26125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-58517763438320410082013-04-22T09:23:00.000-07:002013-04-27T08:25:28.484-07:00Finding posts on Silk in S India<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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A Table of Contents and finding aid via dates of posting for <a href="http://www.simoncharsley.blogspot.co.uk/"><span style="font-size: 11.0pt;">www.simoncharsley.blogspot.co.uk</span></a><br />
<br />
<div align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">1.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Introduction,
with comment by G.J.Rajesh. (2010 April 16) </span></div>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">2.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">The
Patunulkarans: Silk weavers, immigration and textiles from the 5<sup>th</sup>
century AD. (2013<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>March 6)</span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">3.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Tipu
Sultan and sericulture for Mysore. (2013 February 13)</span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">4.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">James
Anderson of Madras - 1: Introduction. (2010 April 17)</span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">5.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">James
Anderson of Madras – 2: Entomology, rearing, reeling and promoting a new
industry.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(2010 April 17)</span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">6.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">James
Anderson of Madras – 3: </span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: x-small; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Anderson versus the EIC. </span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">(2010 December 21)</span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">7.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Mulberry
Multicaulis: the mid-19<sup>th</sup> century wonder. (2010 August 10)</span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">8.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";">
</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Disease,
research and control: </span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: xx-small; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">De'Vecchj at Kengeri: experiment and
crisis.</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: xx-small; mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span>(2013 March 2)</span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">9.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: xx-small; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Dr H. De Vecchj de Piccioli.</span></span></span><i><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Manual for sericulture in Mysore</span></i><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">. </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">(2013 March 4)</span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">10.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">The Bangalore Silk
Farm – 1: The Bangalore Silk Farm: a Japanese model and the Tata initiative
(2013 April 12)</span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">11.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">The Bangalore Silk
Farm - 2: Development and the Salvation Army (2010 December 1)</span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">12.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">A new century of
advance and frustration: </span><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: xx-small; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";">A Government Silk Farm and Italian Silk Expert.</span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span>(2013 March 5)</span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">13.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Mysore sericulture’s
historic leap forward - 1: Navaratna Rama Rao & M. Yonemura: Yonemura and
experimental breeding. (2013 March 14)</span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">14.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Mysore sericulture’s
historic leap forward – 2: from silkworm experimentation to commercial<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>production. (2013 March 15) </span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">15.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Research and ‘the
pursuit of ‘a bivoltine revolution’: Beginnings. (2010 April 16)</span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">16.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Ditto – 2. – CSB and
State in Bangalore. (2010 April 18)</span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">17.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Ditto – 3.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The ‘grand march towards progress’. (2010
April 23 + 2013 March 5)</span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">18.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Ditto – 4. The
Karnataka Sericulture Project. (2010 April 23) </span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">19.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Ditto – 5.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>KSP, World Bank and the Japanese connection.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>(2010 May 9)</span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">20.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> <span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"> <b>A</b> </span></span></span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">
</span></span>Karnataka reeling village, 1992 – 1: socio-economic change
in industry and society. (2013 March 12)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">21.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Ditto - A Karnataka reeling village, 1992 - 2 / continued) (2013 March 31)</span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">22.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">The Swiss in South
Indian sericulture: Beginnings – 1 (2010 April 24) </span></h2>
<h2 align="left" style="margin-left: 54.0pt; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; text-align: left; text-indent: -18.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-list: Ignore;">23.<span style="font: 7.0pt "Times New Roman";"> </span></span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt;">Ditto - The Swiss in
South Indian sericulture: International Congress on Tropical Sericulture
Practices, 1988. – 2 (2010 April 27)</span></h2>
Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-55408580184127537252013-04-14T10:09:00.000-07:002013-04-27T08:46:32.613-07:00Pursuit of a bivoltine revolution (3)<link href="file:///C:/DOCUME%7E1/sc1soc/LOCALS%7E1/Temp/msoclip1/01/clip_filelist.xml" rel="File-List"></link><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:DoNotOptimizeForBrowser/> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:"Arial Unicode MS"; panose-1:2 11 6 4 2 2 2 2 2 4; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:swiss; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:-1 -369098753 63 0 4129023 0;} @font-face {font-family:"\@Arial Unicode MS"; panose-1:2 11 6 4 2 2 2 2 2 4; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:swiss; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:-1 -369098753 63 0 4129023 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, 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progress’</b></span> <br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">CSB’s magazine for the industry, <i>Indian Silk</i>, had opened its response to the Workshop with an editorial statement that ‘Ministers, economists and planners were unequivocal in assuring all support to the sericultural industry in its grand march towards progress.’ It was not, however, an entirely fortunate moment to be making such assurances. The previous year had seen the end of the Vietman War but also the USA and USSR gearing up their nuclear arsenals with test explosions, and - most directly relevant - Middle Eastern Muslim nations challenging America and its allies. The oil-producing nations raised the price of oil by 70 percent and set up an embargo on supply to the US and the Netherlands. At the same time, Egypt and Syria attacked Israel. This turned into a devastating defeat for the attackers in what came to be known to the Israelis as their Yom Kippur war. The tensions more generally, and the crisis in oil supply and its rising cost, produced destabilisation and acute inflation across the globe, seriously affecting India amongst others. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">By the time of the celebration in Bangalore in April 1974 therefore, there were cuts in prospect in the promised government expenditure on sericulture’s ‘grand march’ under the 5th 5-Year Plan then beginning. The farmer sericulturists were already being affected by ‘the gnawing shortage of fertilizers’ just as the agents of government were exhorting them to ‘use them progressively as vital input for better output’ of superior mulberry. Efforts to secure a specific allocation of fertiliser for the industry had so far failed. The silk market had also been affected by an embargo on the export of raw silk. This was to support the weaving and garment manufacturing sections of the industry but was likely to be at the cost of returns to reelers and rearers as producers of the raw silk. As reported in IS, these were ‘some of the ticklish questions’ that were ‘somewhat embarrassing’ for the planners. Nevertheless, ‘promises were made and accepted by the industry with stoically docile countenance’. The Silver Jubilee events were considered ‘a grand success since, instead of extolling its own past achievements, the Board sportingly chose to stand face to face with some of the still-existing major problems, and resolutely committed to rededicate itself to their solutions (<i>IS</i> 13, 1: 3). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">For the seminar next day, it was the ‘Bivoltine Revolution’ that led the reporting when it was published in the August number. It had not received more than passing attention earlier. Now, under the somewhat ambiguous headline REARERS OVERWHELMED BY BIVOLTINE REVOLUTION, a boxed comment read: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The introduction of bivoltine rearing has come as a boon to the rearing comity of Karnataka State. With their economy geared up, the primary silkmen of trhe State look at this new programme as the RICH TREASURE HOUSE and express their gratitude to the Central Sericultural Research & Training Institute (Mysore) for revolutionising the sericulture industry. The sericulturists who participated in the seminar also underlined some of the problems faced by them. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The respondents quoted were from two main areas. A rearer from Attibele near Bangalore, who had provided the ‘rich treasure house’ idea, also ‘drew attention of all concerned with State sericulture to the urgent need of providing proper grainage facilities’, both public sector and private. This, like most of the other six contributions, was referring to the need for good supplies of layings, available at the right time, from which bivoltine rearing could proceed. Providing an adequate supply to match the exhortation to take it up that was going on had clearly been a widespread problem, within the general problem of shortages identified by Chief Minister Devaraj Urs. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">From the perspective of the would-be bivoltine rearers there were other problems too. A rearer from a village in Maddur Taluk of Mandya District noted that bivoltine had been reared successsfully and income ‘doubled up’, but added the other two general and basic themes expressed in the feedback: mulberry and the fertilizer needed for it, and disease prevention. As well as the need for improved supply of layings, bivoltine rearing had more demanding requirements for mulberry, both in the prodigious quantity of leaves that would have to be available at the late stages of bivoltine rearing and for the high quality of nutrition for which superior varieties would be required. Replacing the old mulberry gardens with new varieties was a major enterprise that would take time to achieve (<i>IS </i>13, 1, 1974: 21). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<i><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Indian Silk</span></i><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">’s respondent also noted that ‘proper preventive measures’ against silkworm diseases ‘should be suggested to farmers’. Another, the progressive rearer that the study tour had visited in Kolar District where bivoltine rearing had most quickly been successful, was enthusiastic, but he also added to his concern with disease a call for CSRTI to open more extension centres ‘to provide guidance for the needy poor rearers who had not benefited from it so far’. From the same region, another wanted motor vehicles so that ‘quick transporting facilities’ could be ‘extended to extension workers’ to enable them to supervise rearing, but again he also wanted ‘proper disinfection arrangements’ to be ‘made available to rearers’. He was also thinking in terms of ‘low interest loans to be given to rearers to construct spacious and hygienic rearing houses’. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">All this represents forward thinking amongst the early adopters of the intended bivoltine revolution. To them it was not just the externally induced fertilizer shortage that was worrying but basic issues of food supply for the worms and of protection against disease to which bivoltine worms were generally considered to be more susceptible that the established CB worms. There was much supporting research as well as extension still to be done. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">With hindsight, it was undoubtedly over-ambitious to announce the bivoltine revolution as already achieved in 1974. Nevertheless, the CSB did turn attention with some success to the problems of producing adequate bivoltine seed. Over the following four years, as a project under the 5th Plan, it established eleven bivoltine grainages in Karnataka and one each in West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh. There were seven more to come. They were to have a capacity of 10 lakh dfls, one million. Half were to be bivoltine hybrids, half multi-bi hybrids, the latter to be ‘improved CB’ using the male moths for second matings with multivoltine females. The procedure would reduce costs and provide an ‘economic utilisation of the valuable seed material’ (Ranganatha Rao 1978: 63). In 1973/4, two bivoltine ‘races’, called NN<sub>6</sub>D and KA, were released for rearing in the Anekal bivoltine seed area. The former was replaced three years later by NB<sub>4</sub>D<sub>2.</sub> Despite its and KA’s success, a further 3-yearly replacement followed, with NB<sub>7</sub> and NB<sub>18</sub>. In practice these four races continued to be produced and tested at Anekal and all six introduced in these years were ‘continued in the field’. There were pairs in each case since the bivoltine hybrid practice required a separation of ancestry in order to secure heterosis. NB<sub>4</sub>D<sub>2, </sub>for instance displayed the dumbell-shaped cocoons of its Japanese ancestry, KA the oval cocoons of its Chinese. In practice, multi-bi rearing remained predominant in commercial production because the yield, at an average of 40-45 kgs per 100 dfls, could not be matched by the bivoltine hybrids with averages at the time of at best 32 kgs. (Mahadevappa 1986: 38-39) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">From the somewhat sheltered viewpoint of the CSB and its research institute in Mysore at least, ‘the floodgate of revolution’ had been ‘flung open’ but what they now meant by this was that ‘the seeds of either the bivoltine or the multivoltine were being reared regularly’. Even the rainfed areas of the southern Karnataka, it was claimed, ‘started switching over to this new wave successfully’ (Ranganatha Rao 1978: 64). Bivoltine seed cocoon production did rise year by year, reaching 1,484 lakhs (148.4 million) by 1980-81. When the eminent B. Sivaraman, Padma Vibushan, was appointed Chairman of CSB in 1983, he was credited in <i>IS</i> (22, 2/3 1983) with having ‘inspired the launching of bivoltine programmes in Karnataka by initiating meaningful research on and by helping to set up silkworm seed grainages for production of bivoltine seed’. Mostly it was continuing, it was said, on ‘lines enunciated by him in the report’ of the Agricultural Commission (nd). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Sadly, this success with bivoltine seed cocoon production had not been carried through either to the yield in layings or the production of cocoons for commercial reeling from these layings. For that, 1978, the year in which the above optimistic assertion was written by Ranganatha Rao, the CSB Project Co-ordinator, represented a peak. In 1977/78 BV Hybrid layings reached 65 lakhs, compared with 1474 lakhs of CB layings. CSB produced half the BV and 4% of the CB, the State grainages the other half of the BV and 20% of the CB. The remainder was produced by the lsps, Licenced Seed Producers. While the State’s BV production increased over the years, if erraticly, the CSB’s declined, falling as low as 13% in 1980/81, the first year of the Karnataka Sericulture Project (KSP). It was only in 1982/83 that the erratic BV Hybrid production again reached and surpassed the 1978 peak. Conversion of layings into cocoons and from cocoons to raw silk were also both erratic, the overall record in these years being disasterous. (Chandra 1986: 61) <o:p></o:p></span></div>
Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com6tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-47017116788906023402013-04-12T23:51:00.001-07:002013-04-12T23:51:33.289-07:00The Bangalore Silk Farm<span style="font-weight: bold;">A Japanese model: the Tata initiative</span><br />
<br />
In 1898, Jamsetji Nusserwanji Tata (1839-1904) began to establish a 'silk farm' at Basavanagudi on the then southern edge of Bangalore. His earlier travels had taken him to France and Italy where ‘with his usual ardour,’ he had ‘studied and seen something of the cultivation of the silkworm’. A visit to Japan in 1893 impressed him with the scientific development of sericulture there. He considered that it had ‘incorporated all that was best in European methods’, and that ‘through Japanese instruction, India would obtain a thorough knowledge of the trade, fortified by experiments which were better adapted to the East’. He noted, with significant foresight, that ‘care of the soil was far in advance of anything done by the Indian’ (Harris 1925: 110). Quddus (1923: 21-22) commented that ‘no small part of the credit‘ for the revival of sericulture in Mysore in the early twentieth century belonged to J.N. Tata’s initiative there. ‘It may be pardonable to state that Mr Tata showed a more lively and more sincere interest in the improvement of this valuable Industry than even the British Government when they were in direct charge of the State or the Government of His Highness of the Maharaja soon after the rendition’ of 1881’.<br />
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By the time his active involvement with the Bangalore initiative began, Jamsetji Tata was entering the last and amazingly productive period of his life. It included, in 1902, the finalising in the course of a seven-month journey to England and the United States the great enterprises for which he would be mainly remembered: the founding of the Indian Institute of Science in Bangalore, his great Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO), and the development of hydro-electric power for Bombay, all of which would come to fruition only after his own departure from the scene. The IIS opened in 1911 as a university devoted to practical scientific and technological research, the forerunner of all the prestigious Indian Institutes of the new century; TISCO was founded in 1907 and was producing at Sakchi, which was to be developed as Jamshedpur, from 1912; and the hydro power for Bombay was switched on in 1915. As Lala, his latest biographer, romantically exclaims: ‘And the light he brought to India is still shining’ (2004: 209). It was in the midst of all the stupendous activity entailed in getting these large enterprises under way that the Tata Silk Farm was opened. According to one of his earlier biographers, he spent Rs 50,000 on the project (Harris 1925: 110).<br />
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In Mysore his contact was the best, another of the great modernisers of the age, the highly successful Dewan of the State since 1883, Sir K. Seshadri Iyer. In Mysore in 1895, Tata had also been in touch with the old and influential silk-trading firm of Mustan of Channapatna – which also had a branch in Bangalore at the time – as a source of practical and financial information relevant to dealings with the Japanese industry in which he was already interested. In this connection a calculation of the costs and proceeds of reeling was made. A maund (mana) of cocoons, for long the standard unit in which they were bought and sold, equivalent to 11 kgs, cost Rs 12-4-0 (= Re.1.11 per kg). This would yield 3¼ seers of silk, a renditta of 12.3. Labour for reeling cost 5 annas per seer, making a total labour cost for the 11 kgs of Rs 1-1-3. The silk would sell for Rs 4-4-0 per seer, Rs 15.45 a kg., of which Re 0.63 was the profit margin. This is the kind of schematic calculation which for long prevailed in the industry, ignoring both overheads and additional income such as from silk waste. Mustan was already interested in the latter and in using Tata as a route for the export of waste as well as dried cocoons via Bombay (Quddus 1923: 23-25). <br />
On a visit in 1897, Tata selected the land for the mulberry plantation and a rearing house, and subsequently obtained a rent-free grant and an annual subsidy of Rs 3,000 from the Mysore Government (Watt 1908: 1018; Tucker 1912). The farm was aimed at reviving the silk industry of Mysore which Tata saw as having been deserted by Government and become largely defunct. This latter understanding was wide of the mark but it presented him with a noble challenge. It was the industry’s potential value for the country and its poorer classes in particular, rather than any prospect of his own personal advantage, that motivated him. His Farm was to revive it by demonstrating Japanese methods and teaching them free to apprentices engaged for three-month periods. They were to study, as well as mulberry cultivation and silkworm rearing, ‘the possibility of improving the variety by cross-breeding; the detection of disease by means of the microscope; the preservation of cocoons for seed and for silk; the handling of the thread; its packing and its preparation for the market’ (Harris 1925: 111). <br />
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From Japan, Tata hired a Japanese couple as sericulture experts to run the farm, the husband, Mr Odzu, was generally known as the Expert, and he also recruited for him as an interpreter a Japanese servant of his cousin, R.D. Tata, who already spoke some English and Hindustani (Harris 1925: 110; Lala 2004: 54). Odzu arrived the following year, 1898, and was soon travelling by train from Bangalore to Mustan's base at Channapatna to inspect the mulberry the rearing and the reeling of Mysore. He came for a second visit, this time for three or four days, and by then he apparently spoke some English. He settled at the silk farm in Bangalore and started to experiment with the rearing of worms, first from seed cocoons obtained from Ramanagaram ('the Closepet breed') and then with others from Channapatna reared by Japanese methods. 257 seed cocoons were sent to the Farm by post. It was reported that Tata himself wanted preference to be given to the Mysore silkworms rather than importing French or Japanese (Lala 2004: 56). Mulberry leaves were also needed to feed the worms until they could be supplied from new plantations in the Lalbag Botanical Gardens in Bangalore or from their own plantation. In the meantime, obtaining the leaves from Ramanagaram proved practical: a contractor put a packet of them on the train to Bangalore each evening. But in Channapatna Mustan found himself unable to obtain a supply of cocoons: it was by now the height of summer. Reeling was more significant there than mulberry growing or rearing and Mustan was soon encouraging Odzu to experiment with reeling himself. A filature of 10 basins was constructed, the machinery imported from Japan. At the end of the year they were trying to buy 50-80 maunds of ‘raw’ cocoons, presumably to supply their reeling machines, and also planning to experiment with reeling at Channapatna. Both supply of cocoons and sale of silk would probably have been more convenient and cheaper there than in Bangalore. <br />
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The following year small numbers of seed cocoons were still being supplied to the Farm by post: they were to be well packed in a ventilated box. There were also bulk orders for reeling cocoons. In May, the height of summer again, these could be supplied at just over Re 1 per kg, but Odzu was contesting the price. ‘Everything was done upon the Japanese model, and the dexterous fingers of Indian children were quickly trained to revive an old trade’ (Harris 1925: 111). ‘Jamsetji’s experiment in silk farming proved’, it was claimed, ‘a success from the start’ (Tucker 1912; Quddus 1923: 24-5; Saklatvala & Khosla 1970: 54).<br />
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Tata himself died in 1904. By 1906, the Mysore Government was again showing a more active interest in the industry. It took advantage of the farm to provide training (Sharma Rao 1936, ii: 225), and two years later there were eight schoolmasters who had trained in sericulture there and were ready to take up teaching it in schools. At the same time Odzu, the Japanese Expert in charge, was commissioned to visit rearing centres to give advice on the proper selection of silkworm seed. There were also efforts to introduce new mulberry and better methods of cultivation.<br />
The Farm was soon, however, to pass out of Tata control.<br />
See Part 2. Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-1614836092936871312013-03-31T10:12:00.001-07:002013-04-27T09:20:18.188-07:00Reporting (2) from a reeling village, 1992<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Indications of socio-economic change in
industry and society</span></b><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> Agricultural castes, SCs and Muslims, labour and finance<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The continuing story
of Madappa and Manchaiah of Kannur is more complex. In 1962 they separated.
Madappa was himself by this time Chairman of the Village Panchayat under the
new Panchayati Raj of 1961, a position he retained until 1968. In 1991, discussing
the separation, he put it down to business having been bad and difficulties
arising from the partners being of different communities. He himself, however, went
on to set up a new filature of his own. It had twelve basins, new but of the
same type as before. He chose 'Gundal Valley Chapp' as the trade name for his
silk and under it established a reputation for fine quality. This filature was
again in the forefront of technology at the time: it had piped water from his
well, and a steam system for heating the basins. (Before that he had already
innovated with a large cask on a cart as an alternative to carriers for his
water supply.) Twelve basins were the most, he said when interviewed in 1975,
that could be run as a single business. A certain Shivamalladevaru, recorded as
a Lingayat and in 1991 himself a reeler, was claimed at the earlier date to be
his partner. Adding a twisting factory to his business was another of his
aspirations, but he had been seriously ill with a duodenal ulcer requiring
surgery at the time and the twisting plan was abandoned. Few reelers in this
area did manage to add twisting, though in Kollegal town it subsequently took
off.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Madappa’s own gradual
withdrawal from any direct involvement with reeling had begun. The unit was
taken over by Parshivappa, his <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>sister’s
husband’s brother, probably sometime in the late 1970s. It was still running in
1991 but the piped water and steam system had had to be abandoned when the
water in the well was exhausted. They had therefore gone back to dependence on
water carried from one of the two large tanks belonging to the village. Even
this did not last: the tanks were silted up and the retaining wall of one was
broken through. Though it was repaired in 1992, the tank was then dry. Madappa
had in fact been unusual in using ground water for reeling, most of it in the
village being considered unsuitable and damaging to the colour of the silk
produced. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Water-carrying, a job
normally still performed by Parivaras, had become an even larger and more
highly visible source of employment in the village itself and for reeling at
Mangala on the main road nearby. Water had now to be fetched long distances,
mainly on bicycles adapted so as to have hooked onto them large numbers of
small, round, plastic water jars. These were said to be used for their
convenience in filling from limited sources such as pools and steams. The old
technique of settling muddy water by the use of Kaamagere <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">cilada</i> nuts had regained its old importance as an essential resource
for reeling.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Nagesh, Parshivappa's
second son, had been adopted by Madappa; he had no children of his own. A young
man with a BA and already a wife and son at the age of 22, he was said by
Madappa to be managing the unit while his elder and physically handicapped
brother, Nanjunda Murthy, supervised it. In practice it seemed that Nagesh was
mainly involved in the family's farming and sericulture. They also ran a flour
mill, and this was the responsibility of the third of the four brothers.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">When Madappa and Manchaiah
separated, the latter continued with the old basins. His unit was still there
in 1975 but was by then not working. Eventually the basins were sold, Manchaiah
himself having died in 1982, and the building was used as a dwelling house for his
family.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">At both dates when
field studies were made, 1975 and 1992, 20 basin units were working more or
less regularly in the village, but in neither were there any charkas in
operation; a few had been tried from time to time though. In the early 1980s at
least one SC man, a reeling labourer since his childhood, had starting reeling
with just two 2 charkas, with a loan of Rs 4000 from the State Bank of Mysore
in Kaamagere. He worked them for just one year and later went on to basins. </span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Kannur
reeling: basins and units</span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Nos. approx.</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> </span></div>
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<tr style="height: 102.4pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0;">
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 102.4pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 261.75pt;" valign="top" width="349"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 5.25pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: column; mso-element-anchor-vertical: paragraph; mso-element-frame-hspace: 9.0pt; mso-element-top: .05pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">1975</span></u></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 5.25pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: column; mso-element-anchor-vertical: paragraph; mso-element-frame-hspace: 9.0pt; mso-element-top: .05pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 36.0pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Total<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Agric caste:<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Muslim<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>SC/Christ.</span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span> Ling./Kur.etc</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 5.25pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: column; mso-element-anchor-vertical: paragraph; mso-element-frame-hspace: 9.0pt; mso-element-top: .05pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Basins
<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span></span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">194<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>157 (81%)<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>6<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b></span></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Units</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>20<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>17<span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1½<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">½<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">1991</span></u></b></div>
</td></tr>
<tr style="height: 79.5pt; mso-yfti-irow: 1; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;"><td style="border-top: none; border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 79.5pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-top-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 261.75pt;" valign="top" width="349"><div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 11.7pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: column; mso-element-anchor-vertical: paragraph; mso-element-frame-hspace: 9.0pt; mso-element-top: .05pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none; text-indent: 31.65pt;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> Total<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Agric
caste:<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Muslim<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>SC/Christ.</span></b></div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Ling./Kur.etc</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: column; mso-element-anchor-vertical: paragraph; mso-element-frame-hspace: 9.0pt; mso-element-top: .05pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Basi </span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>155<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></b>83
(78%)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>42<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>30</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: column; mso-element-anchor-vertical: paragraph; mso-element-frame-hspace: 9.0pt; mso-element-top: .05pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Units</span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>20<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>8<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>7<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"></span>4</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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</tbody></table>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> Even by 1975
therefore, the old order of the 1950s and '60s in Kannur was already changing. There
were then 12 large units with 10 basins or more, with the 15-basin unit already
noted still in operation. This made 194 basins in all, probably including a few
survivors but only one new unit that had started in the intervening period. Retreat
was underway. By 1991 there were only five large reelers and a total of 155
basins. Of the big five, four were survivors and only one had been established
in the intervening period. This, Shivaramegowda's unit, had been started by his
father Haravegowda in 1973 with 5 basins. It had been expanded to 8 in 1976,
and to 12 in 1980. It was an unusual and late development of the kind which had
been far commoner in the two previous decades. Where did the 39 lost basins go?
Amongst reelers interviewed in 1975 in Kamagere, the major local growth centre
for reeling at the time, three were encountered who had, since 1968, set up
with second-hand basins obtained from Kannur. The earliest were actually six
surplus basins, very old, that had belonged to Madappa himself. This chance
encounter suggests the direction in which Kannur's investment in reeling was already
by that time beginning to drain away.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">It was the
agricultural caste reelers who had earlier dominated the village's reeling who were
losing out. In 1975 several of the leading men of the village, including the
Chairman of the Village Panchayat, had been reelers and they had still been
operating in the old style, obtaining their cocoons from a set of more or less
client silkworm rearers whom they might support with advance payments if
required. Lingayats and Kuruba Gowdas had been running 17 of the units and
owned 157 (81%) of the basins. They were the reelers; others worked for them,
but by 1991 they had only 8 units and 83 basins. At the same time the establishment
of local cocoon markets by the Department of Sericulture meant that their standing
as cocoon-buying patrons – and financial advantages arising from this – were
undermined.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Muslims now ran 7
units with 42 basins; when interviewed in 1975 they had had only one working
unit, one perhaps temporarily stopped and there was one Muslim in partnership
with a Scheduled Caste reeler. The partner had subsequently, it appeared, taken
over the unit for himself. One of the newcomers, Ansar Ali Khan, in partnership
with a relative who had put up some of the funds required, had started in 1989
with two basins only, adding another four a year later. On the SC side, whereas
in 1975 there had been only the one man in partnership and the by then
non-operational remains of the original filature, there were in 1991 4 SC units
and one Christian working, with 30 basins. The reeler mentioned above as having
started a 2-charka unit, in about 1985 managed to start a 5-basin unit without
institutional support, and this time in the name of his mother. Of the six
years since that time he had been out of action for three, having incurred
losses. In addition a number of SCs and Kuruba Gowdas were applying for loans
of Rs.50,000 each from the Karnataka State Finance Corporation (KSFC) in order each
to set up a 6-basin unit. The one Parivara unit of the earlier period had
disappeared. Though members of this community had become reelers elsewhere in
the region, in this particular village they had not. Could the continuing
importance of water-carrying have had anything to do with this?</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">In the event, two SCs
and two Kurubas had been successful in their loan applications by the time of a
research visit in September 1992. New units duly appeared; a new phase indeed
of government support had begun. The account of the transaction offered by the
two successful SC reelers is interesting. Rs 23,000 was provided for the
machinery, with the condition that new equipment was bought. This cost Rs 18-20,000,
not including the cement work for the boiler or 'oven' of a new standard
pattern adapted for burning various combustible residues rather than scarce and
costly firewood, and for a solid floor. This would cost another Rs 4,000. Then
there was the shed to contain it all, which would cost a minimum of Rs 15,000.
A further initial Rs 10,000 was provided for working capital, but this sum
would be needed for advances to recruit labour. Once the reeling was underway –
if this could be achieved – as attested by receipts for cocoons and silk, the
remainder of the Rs 50,000 could be claimed. To obtain all this would cost Rs
5,000 in gifts along the way. Without these the application would not move
along its required track. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Though therefore the
sums available from this source were substantial and mostly quite realistic,
they certainly required any new reeler to have substantial resources of his
own. It was not, as these new reelers were very clear, the reeling labourer who
would in the future get ahead in this way. Neither had ever been reeling
workers themselves: though one had been a supervisor and cocoon buyer, the
other had never previously had anything to do with reeling. The former had sold
land for Rs 22,000 as well as borrowing money from relatives to supplement the
KSFC loan; the latter belonged to a farming family, one brother now looking
after the agriculture while a third brother was a Bank Manager in Mysore. Money
seemed not to be a great problem. He was building a new brick house at the same
time as he was establishing his reeling unit immediately behind it. In neither
case would any of their family expect to do the manual work of the unit; it was
labourers from their own community who would be employed.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">As regards employment
in the reeling units, even in 1975 it was not limited to people of Scheduled or
other castes of low status. Poor people were to be found in every community and
at least a few from most had found their way into reeling. This element of
flexibility no doubt had its roots in the structure of this particular village.
As has already been noted, the communities were not clearly segregated in their
residential areas, and the village had the reputation of being, for its area,
progressive and advanced. The presence of two SC teashop keepers, apparently
not patronised exclusively by fellow caste members, struck my research
assistant, himself of agricultural-caste origin, as extraordinary, even unheard
of. By 1991 the implications of flexibility had probably enlarged somewhat
further. A son of a Lingayat reeler was noted working on the basins himself in
order to learn the job.By then Lingayats, Kuruba Gowdas, Agasas, Muslims,
Parivaras and SCs were all represented amongst the current labourers. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Scheduled Caste
members, who had often been known previously as ‘Untouchables’, remained by far
the largest category in the village, and the main source of reeling labour.
Both males and females might be employed in reeling from a young age. In a
small sample taken in 1975, about one in ten of both boys and girls between the
ages of 5 and 14 were already earning in the units and very rarely in any other
capacity. Amongst young women between 15 and 24, over a third were working in
reeling, compared with one in five in agriculture. In older age groups the
proportion in reeling sank slowly whilst the agricultural proportion increased,
reversing the balance. For the over 45s, only a fifth remained in reeling, no
more than half of those still active in agriculture. Of adult SC workers, about
two thirds were women. For males once past childhood, farm work was occupying
about 40% of them at all ages, with reeling at no more than half this level.
Their participation declined sharply after the age of about 45.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">For Parivaras, the
second largest supplier of reeling labour, evidence was not obtained from
Kannur but from a somewhat comparable village it suggested that the
distribution of their activity was probably considerably different. Amongst
them, water-carrying was the men’s most frequent work, with women in reeling relatively
fewer and children unusual. Indeed in surveying Kannur and neighbourhood there
was a striking difference between areas of Parivara and SC residence. The
congested housing of the former, as yet without any government support, would
invariably be found full of women and children, the more spacious layouts and
accommodation of SCs rather empty. Its women would mostly be away at work, the
children either at work or at school. The systematic difference here seemed to
be significantly related to different traditional orientations to earning
livings and the presence and absence of government assistance work: whereas the
SC tradition emphasised employment, and at the time this was not scarce in
Kannur, the Parivara tradition was of self-employment, and primarily for males. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">By 1991 it is
unlikely that such patterns had been much changed. Despite some loosening of restrictions,
caste status was still playing a definite part in allocating particular
labourers to particular employers. Lingayats were the only ones to report having
Lingayat employees and these may well have been confined to supervisory and
rewinding tasks, the most highly paid. Their employees were otherwise a mixture
of all the other available communities, with SCs normally the most numerous.
Kuruba Gowda reelers reported workers from their own community, as well as SCs
and Parivaras. SCs reported only members of their own community as employees,
their own relatives amongst them. Muslims similarly might use their own family
and relatives, but also SCs, while one reeler claimed to employ everyone else
except for Lingayats.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Though the evidence from
1975 on wage rates paid is slight, at both periods it seemed that they were less
standardised than expected. Employers even varied as to whether they paid the
same rate for men and for women. Where these were specified separately, women
working on the basins might in 1991 expect between Rs.14 and Rs.16 for an
approximately eight-hour day, whilst men doing the same work might receive
between Rs.17 and Rs.20. (In 1975 it had been Rs.2/50 or Rs.3/00.) In addition
workers might expect, according to the reelers, substantial advance payments of
between Rs.1000 and 3000. It was not clear whether or how such considerable sums
would be repaid.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">They were also ready
to bemoan workers' unreliability and unpunctuality, particularly at times of
high demand for labour. They clearly felt themselves to be considerably
dependent on their workers. This was not new: in 1975 similar feelings were
being expressed. Madappa himself was at the time keeping highly detailed
records of individual workers' production but he commented that he could not
use these to reward the good or penalise the less so. Any such attempt <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>would mean added difficulty in getting the
workers he needed to run his basins. Already shortage of labour at times limited
the number of basins he could operate, e.g. only ten of his twelve basins. Between
basins and charkas where the latter were still being used, it might vary
between basins and charkas too. In 1991, a reason cited for not running charkas
was that the work on them was disliked in the village and that their own people
would therefore not come and it would be costly, in large advances required, to
bring charka labour from elsewhere. Kannur workers did indeed feel that basin
work was preferable, both as to the job itself and as to its payment on an
hourly basis rather than by the amount reeled. As Uma Shankar, an experienced
Research Assistant put it, on basins they felt they could 'reel in a relaxed
manner'.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Migration to reeling
work in neighbouring Tamil Nadu was another often cited reason for shortage of
labour, though it was claimed also to be a way in which a pattern of regularly
maintained reeling only at favourable seasons became viable. A unit's workers
might migrate temporarily but be ready, with outstanding advances perhaps
playing a part, to be summoned back home when the reeler again needed them. In
1975 Kannur had also still been drawing in labour from Mangala, a main-road
village three-quarters of a mile away. By 1991 it was apparent that the flow
had largely reversed. It was not now drawing in labour but was, like the area
more generally, supplying experienced labour to other places with more pressing
need for it, expressed in higher wages offered. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Madappa in 1991 considered
that the workers then were not what they had been in his day. It was not the
Karnataka State Marketing Board (KSMB) which should be blamed for the rather
poor reputation that Kannur’s silk by then suffered as compared with other
major reeling centres around. Nor was the quality of the reeled silk, as often
thought, to do with some special character of the water used: any sweet water
would do. It was a matter of the workers showing sufficient interest, since it was
on them that quality mostly depended. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<br /></div>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
<br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a>
For further and rather later analysis of reeling and the village context, see
Simon Charsley & G.K. Karanth 1998. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Challenging
Untouchability</i>, Chapter 8, “Increasing autonomy: The Harijans of Rateyur”.</div>
</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"></span></b>Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com3tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-24581606000048553302013-03-31T08:46:00.000-07:002013-04-27T09:20:18.192-07:00Reporting (1) from a reeling village, 1992<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<![endif]--><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Indications of socio-economic change in
industry and society </span></b><br />
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<br />
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">In
contrast to its urban focus elsewhere, reeling in Mysore district has always
been scattered through the villages of the sericultural region. The area to the
east of Kollegal town centred on Kamagere has been prominent in sericulture
since the nineteenth century. Within it are such noted reeling villages as Singanallur
and Doddinduvadi, Kamagere itself, with Kongarahalli, Mangala and Kannur. Up to
the 1930s, reeling was the business mainly of Muslims, people of the depressed
classes, afterwards Scheduled Castes, and other small, middle castes. They are
described in a source from the period as 'special men with machines of a
primitive kind, which does not give sufficient twist or uniformity to the silk
thread'. These were the age-old charkas. The same source claims that reeling
was then carried on in only five villages of the entire Kollegal taluk, against
thirty-two in which there was silkworm rearing. (Supplement to Kamagere, Madras
District Gazeteers. Coimbatore District, Government Press, Madras, 1933:155)
The reelers were not particularly rich or particularly poor people. They might
have land and farm on a small scale as well as reeling; in this area, no caste
or religious group was barred from owning land, and some members even of the
most depressed castes always did so. The silkworm rearers were, however, mainly
members of the dominant agricultural castes, Lingayat, Vokkaliga and Kuruba. It
was therefore these predominantly who supplied cocoons to the reelers in their
own or nearby villages. They would not expect to be paid until the reeler had
prepared and sold his silk, perhaps eight or ten days later. Reelers needed a
reputation for reliability in paying; what they did not yet need was any large
capital in order to reel. Their machines, traditional charkas, they could make
themselves with a little assistance from potter and blacksmith, and their suppliers
in effect took care of working capital for them.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">An important figure
in the development of reeling in Kannur, a village near Kamagere, was
Madappa.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>He was born in 1914, a
Lingayat, the only son in a well-to-do agricultural and sericultural family. He
went to school in the village and, despite disruptions to his schooling from
plague and other vicissitudes, he attained Std. 5 in 1929, one of only two
pupils in the village to do so. The family were unusual in the scale of their
mulberry-growing: they had as many as seventeen acres. The scale certainly
meant that they could not rear the silkworms with family labour; they took on
others to rear for them, supplying their labour in return for a third of the
proceeds. The cocoons were sold to reelers either in the village or in
Doddinduvadi. There were no brokers buying cocoons in those days. Madappa
recalls how difficult it sometimes was to get the reelers to pay; you might
need to go there twenty-five times in pursuit of your money.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Reeling in the
village, he thought, had begun about 1918. In his childhood it was Muslims who
were the reelers here. There were perhaps twenty charkas in the entire village.
About 1925 some Lingayats had started too, but it is likely that in the
Depression of the early 1930s reeling died out again. During the 1939/45 War it
was in any case for a time banned, in order to reserve the supply of cocoons
for the new filatures which were intended to supply silk to the war effort.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The new order in
reeling</span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">It was after the War
that reeling acquired a new aspect. Some old reelers doubtless re-started, but
at the same time numbers of substantial agricultural caste men set up units on
a larger scale than had ever been attempted before. These established a new
style of reeling in which the workers were entirely separate from the
management and the families of owners did not involve themselves in reeling,
let alone actually working on the charkas. A common pattern was for one brother
in a family to take charge of reeling, whilst others managed the family's
agricultural, sericultural and sometimes other kinds of business, and, increasingly
as time went by, were educated and in government or other kinds of employment
at qualified and officer levels. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Reeling workers were
mainly people from the Scheduled Castes from which field labourers had been drawn
previously. Employment came therefore to be modelled on the relationships
between agricultural castes and their labourers, a quasi-traditional
relationship with a strong patron and client element involved. In some cases at
least, there was a basis of experience here since such people had already been
reeling in the pre-war period.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>At the
same time, however, these units introduced a new discipline. They commonly aspired
to higher quality production, to silk with a reliability and reputation for
which they could be proud and widely known. For this, work on the machines had
to be more controlled, attentive and the number of cocoons or ‘ends’ being
reeled together more regular and correct. Standards using the
factory-constructed machinery for basin reeling might be substantially improved
on anything that could be achieved<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>even
with considerable skill and dexterity on the part of the workers. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 5.65pt; margin-top: 0cm; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The new-style reelers also enjoyed a
different position to the old when it came to the supply of cocoons.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>The old had depended on rearers to provide
them with the necessary cocoons on credit.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The new reelers could take advantage of this tradition too, but, as
leading men in the agricultural community, they could also exploit a
relationship of patronage. Running large units, they needed to assemble far
more cocoons and with more regularity than had ever been done before. They
might therefore use their superior position in the community and their relative
wealth to mobilise and organise their suppliers. They would need, like the ‘silk
merchants’ they were often called, to manipulate available funds, taking cocoons
on credit from some suppliers, providing advances to others, in the interests
of ensuring their supply of raw material and at as advantageous a price as
possible.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Madappa, the focus of
much of what is reported here, was a member of this new class of reeler, but
his way into it was unusual. It was via an association with one of his
hereditary labourers, Manchaiah, an enterprising man of Scheduled Caste origin and
Christian leanings. In 1941, Manchaiah had received Rs 300 through the good
offices of the local Catholic priest in order to buy bullocks and a cart, to
set himself up as a carrier of foodgrains. Perhaps this was an opportunity
created by wartime requistioning of grain, but not finding it very profitable,
he took up buying cocoons from rearers for supply to reelers, i.e. cocoon
brokering. This must either have been collecting cocoons for the filature – in which
case it is possible to see how this is a next stage from carting foodgrains –
or after the War when reeling started up again. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Certainly it was
after the War when he took the next step. By then he was supplying to private
reelers. Finding on one occasion that he was not being paid for a previous lot supplied
to a reeler from a nearby village, the situation he faced was urgent: he had
another lot to supply which he could not hold back because the emergence of the
moths from its cocoons was imminent. He decided therefore to get them reeled on
his own account. This he did in the unit of one Honnappa, a Lingayat.
Thereafter he was for a time working in partnership with this unit, supplying its
cocoons. By this time Madappa had become interested in getting into the reeling
business himself. He saw an opportunity in himself teaming up with Manchaiah,
and in 1950 they starting a joint unit. The investment in fourteen charkas and
in labour for them – <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>the workers needed
to be paid advances in order to come to work – <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>was Madappa's and he attended to the financial
side of the operation, while Manchaiah managed the running of the unit.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The charka unit ran
successfully but without much profit. This is not surprising since it was a
difficult time in the industry at large: high prices in 1950 fell away badly in
the following two years. Undeterred, the partners decided to try the new ‘basin
reeling’ which others were taking up instead. In 1953 they built the
Viswanathan Silk Filature in Kannur’s Harijan Street and started reeling there.
They began with five five-end basins supplied by the manufacturer, Sitaramiah
& Co. of 130 Cottonpet, Bangalore, and sometime after they had actually
begun work there was a ceremonial opening on 10th February 1953.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">This seems to have
been a time of expansion in the village and more widely too. In the same year a
particularly splendid Kamagere <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">chavadi</i>
or meeting hall – 'none other to match it in Kollegal' – was built in the SC
section of the village for the Nirmala Yuvaka Sangha. Adult classes were held
there and it was a centre of musical activity. It was also the period at which
the government in the form of the Sericulture Department of Madras State, since
Kollegal had not yet been transferred to Karnataka under the boundary revision
of 1956, was campaigning for the new style of reeling. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The event was
arranged around the visit of M.T. Raju, ICS, Barrister-at-Law, the Madras
Government's Director of Industries and Commerce. A photographer was called in
from Kollegal and his photograph survives as a witness to the occasion. In its
centre, the Director stands, a large, youngish man in a baggy suit – ‘Oxford
bags’ – with open-necked shirt and formal leather shoes. On his left stands
Madappa, in a dark jacket over collared shirt and untucked dhoti, on his head a
village-style turban and on his feet nothing. On the other side of the
Director, to his right, is the resplendent figure of M.K. Malaraja Urs, the
Manegara, head of the village. He wears an Indian-style coat over tucked dhoti,
a magnificent tailored turban on his head, his face emboldened with a prominent
white moustache, and sandals on his feet. Three Sericultural staff are also
present, distinguished by their ties and jackets, and, for the two older men,
their spectacles. On the right of the picture stands, A.T. Janakiraman, the
Madras Silk Expert, a large man in a pale suit, who would later be the Secretary
of the Central Silk Board. On the other side stands Subramaniam, the second in
command, who had been in Kollegal since the 1930s. He is smaller, wears a light
jacket over dark trousers. He holds a garland over his left arm, either
retrieved from the Director or about to be applied to him, and in his right
hand there is what looks like a speech of welcome. Tucked in behind him and the
Manegara is his assistant, V.R. Uttaman, who would also go far in the Mysore
Department, retiring as its Director . Behind them cluster another twenty or
thirty villagers, young and old; all are male. Manchaiah is not there though;
he was away making arrangements at the time. On the ground is the shadow in the
bright afternoon sun of the strung mango-leaf decorations put up for the event.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Ambitious
'filatures', basin-reeling workshops, were therefore being set up at this time.
In Kannur there was another too, established in the same year, the Sri
Brahmalingeshwara Silk Filature. This was a Kuruba Gowda establishment. The
Department was to provide a 50% subsidy on the cost. Instructors came from the
Government filature to train the workers for six months; in 1975 the man who had
come to Kannur was still there, though now retired and suffering from asthma.
The Department took samples for testing the silk produced and reported back on
them; and there was help with marketing the silk. The Madappa/Manchaiah partnership
was, like others, put in touch with Chenai, a Bombay firm with a branch in
Bangalore, reputedly the leading silk merchants of the time. Their
representative came to inspect and gave them a certificate of quality too.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The table shows the
build-up in the numbers of basins in the Kamagere area from this time: the
source was a chart still in the Sericulture Office there in 1975.</span></div>
<table align="left" border="1" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="MsoNormalTable" style="border-collapse: collapse; border: none; margin-left: 23.4pt; margin-left: 6.75pt; margin-right: 6.75pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; mso-border-insideh: .5pt solid windowtext; mso-border-insidev: .5pt solid windowtext; mso-padding-alt: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; mso-table-anchor-horizontal: column; mso-table-anchor-vertical: paragraph; mso-table-left: left; mso-table-lspace: 9.0pt; mso-table-overlap: never; mso-table-rspace: 9.0pt; mso-table-top: .05pt;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 71.25pt; mso-yfti-firstrow: yes; mso-yfti-irow: 0; mso-yfti-lastrow: yes;">
<td style="border: solid windowtext 1.0pt; height: 71.25pt; mso-border-alt: solid windowtext .5pt; padding: 0cm 5.4pt 0cm 5.4pt; width: 250.5pt;" valign="top" width="334"><div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: column; mso-element-anchor-vertical: paragraph; mso-element-frame-hspace: 9.0pt; mso-element-top: .05pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><u>Nos of domestic basins recorded in Kamagere
</u></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: column; mso-element-anchor-vertical: paragraph; mso-element-frame-hspace: 9.0pt; mso-element-top: .05pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1952/53<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>35<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1955/56<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>140<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1958/59<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>356</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: column; mso-element-anchor-vertical: paragraph; mso-element-frame-hspace: 9.0pt; mso-element-top: .05pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1953/54<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>77<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1956/57<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>245<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1959/60<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>419</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-element-anchor-horizontal: column; mso-element-anchor-vertical: paragraph; mso-element-frame-hspace: 9.0pt; mso-element-top: .05pt; mso-element-wrap: around; mso-element: frame; mso-height-rule: exactly; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1954/55<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>119<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>1957/58<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>257<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1960/61<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>506</span></div>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Madappa and Manchaiah
continued to be part of this expansion. They first added another seven basins,
to make twelve, and then another six. In the course of this build-up, the
five-end machines originally being worked had been increased to six-end,
allowing more cocoons to be reeled simultaneously as long as their quality and the
skill of the reeler were adequate.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">All these machines
came in two parts: in front of the reeler was the basin and the mechanism for
the tavelette croissure, behind the reeler a stand to which small, hexagonal
reels were attached. These small reels had been introduced by Chinese
technicians in Mysore during the War, there to set up a private filature unit.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">In these village
units the reels were driven manually, turned with a handle. The silk thread was
drawn back over the reeler's head. When the thread broke, as it would
inevitably do from time to time, the reeler would have to turn round and knot
it, before starting to reel again. There were however advantages in the greater
distance the silk had to travel: it would dry in passage and there was little
problem of gum spots building up on the reel. Their silk was in any case to be
re-reeled. It was in that respect that the small reels had their own advantage,
being much more convenient and easier to handle for that purpose than the large
reels on the Italian and French machines which had preceded them. These
distinctive machines with a reputation for producing superior silk, were to
survive in some places, though not in Kannur itself nor in Kollegal. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">The ownership of the
two filatures that have been named represented the two leading communities in
the village, Kuruba Gowdas and Lingayats. Kannur is typical of the area in
having a set of substantial caste communities within it, living in more or less
separate but not physically separated blocks of housing. As the seat of a
Lingayat mutt or <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">matha</i> the village
had a special status for that community, but they and the Kuruba Gowdas were
otherwise balanced in their standing in the village, both a step behind a small
but wealthy set of Arasu households belonging to the caste of the rulers of
Mysore. Together these made up the main land-owning section of the population,
most undertaking sericulture as well as general agriculture. The other main
communities were Scheduled Castes and Parivaras. Neither of these were landless
but they had far less than the main agricultural castes, led in that respect by
the Gowdas. In addition, there were about a dozen Muslim families in the
village, with a small mosque, and also a Catholic church with a small number of
Christian converts of SC origin.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Landowners were in
1975 living in expectation of irrigation for their lands from a channel being
dug from the new Gundal reservoir locally and there was already rumour that a
channel from the far larger Kabini scheme would eventually reach the village's lands.
Nevertheless – or in perhaps realistic distrust of the work ever being
completed – the number of pumpsets for irrigation about doubled between 1975
and 1991, with members of each of the main communities owning at least a few.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 12.0pt; mso-layout-grid-align: none; mso-pagination: none; text-autospace: none;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">Over the following
years basin-reeling replaced charkas entirely in this village, except that one
charka would usually be retained by each reeler, in order to use up cocoons and
parts of cocoons not reelable on the basins. This would produce a small
quantity of rough 'dupion' silk which would be disposed of separately, as were
the various kinds of silk waste. Of the two major filatures of 1953, the second
continued operation over the next twenty years and more. It was owned by B.
Mallegowda in 1975, and was still operating with 15 basins, by then the largest
in the village and probably anywhere in the vicinity.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Not long after, however, it seems to have
closed, having perhaps served its purpose. Of Mallegowda's sons, Shivaramegowda
was, in 1991, employed as a purchasing officer at Kumbakonam, presumably in the
Marketing Board (KSMB), and K.M. Shivarajappa was a member of the Zilla
Parishad.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;">Continues as Part 2</b></div>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
<br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a>
For further and rather later analysis of reeling and the village context, see
Simon Charsley & G.K. Karanth 1998. <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Challenging
Untouchability</i>, Chapter 8, “Increasing autonomy: The Harijans of Rateyur”.</div>
</div>
</div>
Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-43468751790362041332013-03-15T04:07:00.001-07:002013-03-27T02:51:04.062-07:00Mysore sericulture's historic leap forward 2)<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
</div>
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<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Navaratna Rama Rao & M. Yonemura</span></b></div>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">2.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>From silkworm
experiment to commercial production</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">In 1925, co-operation between Rama Rao & Yonemura was
demonstrated by the appearance of the first volume of </span><i><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">A
Handbook of Sericulture</span></i><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;">, <i>Rearing of Silkworms </i><span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">on which they had both worked</span>. </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">By then Rama Rao must have accumulated considerable
experience in the field, and he was also well known for his demonstrable skill
with English.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a> It
was certainly Yonemura who mainly contributed the technical and scientific
information, Rama Rao who turned it into a fluent English text. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The future was now coming into focus, as experimental
results of direct relevance were slotted into place. In the first place,
results from the rearing section suggested that the limits of improvement of
Pure Mysore were now in sight, or were at least compatible with thinking so. It
was apparently impossible to shorten its rearing period or get a better ratio
of silk to leaves fed. On the other hand, it was apparently essential for the
cross breeding of cocoons for reeling: 'it will not do to have cocoons of a
colour different from that of the Mysore cocoons, for that would lead to
complications in reeling and marketing'. This was one of the drawbacks of the
fixed races which so much effort had been put into creating. A solution would
be a back-cross between them and Mysore, but the back-cross hybrid with the
fixed races is far inferior to the hybrid that can be got in the first
generation between a pure foreign race, and the Mysore race. This hybrid, if
white races are employed, gives a cocoon which, while practically the same
colour as the Mysore, is over 100 percent superior to it in reeling quality'.
The rearing period was about four days shorter in its most expensive part, i.e.
in the worms’ final voracious stage before spinning.’ </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">To be able to make F<sub>1</sub> hybrids the basis for
commercial rearing required the solving of technical problems. It had to be
possible to rear pure univoltine or bivoltine races throughout the year in good
quantities; it had to be possible to get them to emerge out of hibernation at
will when required; and it had to be possible to regulate emergence so that
Mysore and Foreign race moths would be available simultaneously to mate. All
these problems had by now been solved. It had been shown that the Foreign pure
races could be reared in Mysore conditions throughout the year and from year to
year. It was thought that they retained their vigour over the years but
suffered a 'seasonal enfeeblement'. This could be dealt with by rearing in the
hot season in hill stations like the Bababudan Hills (Chamundiguddi) north of
Chikmagalur, and 'renewing the stock occasionally by importing fresh seed from
Japan'. In a result 'of great scientific interest', the artificial treatment of
hibernating eggs to make them hatch had been achieved for the first time in
India. And it had been found possible to control the time of emergence by
regulating temperature even without refrigeration, which was not yet readily
available. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Technically
therefore, a new system of more productive rearing was in sight. It required
also to be acceptable to rearers and for it to be possible to separate entirely
the production of cocoons for seed from those for reeling. Fortunately, the
greater productivity of the F<sub>1</sub> quickly dealt with the former’s problem:
'Raiyats, who were rather shy of the hybrids at first, soon recognised their
value, and the demand for them rose so rapidly that the grainage at
Channapatna, which devoted itself to this work, could never fully meet it'.
There seemed to be no problem of getting the new cocoons reeled, and the
organisation needed to produce the huge quantities required of pure races both
for commercial use for seed and for grainage work was at least clear, if an
inevitable challenge. The future pattern of the industry could be clearly
envisioned: </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">‘There is undoubtedly
a great future for this development, which is in strict accord with Japanese
practice, and in a very few years it will be possible to solve the seed problem
satisfactorily. Seed production will be specialised and will afford an
occupation to educated sericulturists, pure races will be reared by selected
breeders, F<sub>1</sub> seed will be prepared by controlled grainages
[Government and aided private], and the rearers will produce larger harvests at
less cost.’ (p.4/5) </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">In 1926/7, the Mysore grainage began in a small way to
produce 'Cross-Breeds', joining Channapatna in the task. The following year it
produced 23,000 to Channapatna's nearly 2 lakhs (200,000), and Kolar made a
beginning too. The first cold storage plants were installed in the two main CB
grainages, and experiments in their use in preserving moths and eggs began.
They were to be used in production the following year. (p.2/3) </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Rearing CB was not, however, proving quite as free of
troubles as had been anticipated. One was the appearance of double or dupion
cocoons, to the production of which the F<sub>1</sub> worms were prone whereas
they were scarcely found with Pure Mysore. Experiments were going on to try to
reduce the proportion produced, as well as to solve 'some of the difficulties
which sericulturists came across in rearing cross breeds'. There was also still
an interest in suitable breeding combinations for the different rearing
seasons. A need to import fresh seed from Japan, which should be possible with
the help of Yonemura, was also addressed. To start with, the eggs hatched on
the way; they would have to try again. (1926/7:2/4/5) In the following year's
report there is, however, no mention of the Japanese seed, but new Chinese
races made their appearance. The CB experiments seem likewise to have
disappeared, perhaps deemed successfully concluded, perhaps unnecessary. (p.5) </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">In 1929/30, Yonemura was appointed a correspondent in
Japan for the Department, to keep up with developments there. The apparent
result was that fresh seed of 19 Japanese and Korean races was obtained,
presumably chiefly for experimental work. Now the cold stores were working, and
the only trouble was the shortage of Mysore Race seed because of an outbreak of
plague and shortage of rain in the seed areas. Perhaps under the impetus of
this shortage, the observation that Mysore seed sometimes gave 'a large
percentage' of hibernating layings was noted. They had been being destroyed,
but new experiments now showed that they could be got to hatch and produce
well. (p.2/3)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The Yonemura period had been momentous, the Mysore silk
industry transformed. The complexity of the many other intertwining elements needing
to achieve equal success would<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>however
continue. They were to provide engaging challenges aplenty for further
generations of enthusiasts and experts.</span></div>
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<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference">[1]</span></span></a> It should be noted that the official language of the
Department was English from the beginning. Apart from the numerous reports and
other work in English he published, his friend C. Rajagopalachari, popularly and
affectionately remembered as Rajaji, ‘lawyer, independence activist,
politician, writer and statesman’, credited Rama Rao with revising for him the
text of his English version of the <i>Ramayana</i>
: ‘My friend Sri Navaratna Rama Rao has thoroughly revised the English
rendering and if it is found to be good reading it is due to his affectionate
labour on this book. The faults such as may be noticed are entirely mine.’ Rajagopalachari,
a native of Salem District,was amongst the most eminent of South Indians of the
first half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century: Premier of Madras in the 1930s; first
and only Indian Governor-General after Independence; and Chief Minister of
Madras in the 1950s. See Wikipedia entry for Navaratna Rama Rao, accessed
7.3.2013, and, for the multiple directions of achievement and eminence of C. Rajagopalachari, accessed
15.3.2013.</span></span></div>
</div>
</div>
Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-88109472853617731572013-03-14T09:04:00.000-07:002013-04-27T09:28:10.418-07:00Mysore sericulture's historic leap forward (1)<!--[if !mso]>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Navaratna
Rama Rao & M. Yonemura </span></b></div>
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<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">1.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Yonemura and experimental breeding </span></b></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">M. Yonemura, a Japanese expert 'to whom goes the credit
of evolving high-yielding varieties, modern methods of grainage and silk-farm
works, and hybridisation between multivoltines and bivoltine silkworm races',
was recruited in 1919 (19/20:6)</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">. The story is that Sirdar M. Kantaraj Urs, a member of
the Mysore royal family, acting Dewan in place of Visvesvaraya in 1918 and
taking over the following year, had gone on a tour of eastern countries which
had taken him to Japan. There he had been so impressed by the progress being
made in sericulture that he looked for a capable young expert and arranged for
him to come to Mysore. There had already at the time been two staff hired to
further the work in sericulture, H.S. Govinda Rao in 1917 and Shamsuddin Khan
in 1919. Shamsuddin Khan himself describes the early recruits, without naming
them, as Natural Science graduates, but it appears that he himself had a BA and
it is not clear that Govinda Rao had any degree at all. They seem not to have
been recruited specifically for research but they now were put to assisting Yonemura
(Shamsuddin Khan 1965:11). He was a practical man who would judge the quality
of the cocoons he was producing by reeling them himself. He and Rama Rao got on
well together. Yonemura would visit his house and bring Japanese toys for his
children (Madhava Rao, Mysore, 9.9.92). His services were initially extended
for two years, with an option for him of having a third, and then by the three
years. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">In 1920 he had returned briefly to Japan. A Japanese
operative had been sanctioned and he found and recruited the Lady Expert, E.
Sato, to develop reeling. When he returned at the end of the year he brought
back with him ten different races, three Japanese and three Chinese univoltines
and one Chinese and three Japanese bivoltines. He was also already rearing a
French variety as well as the Mysore race at the Institute in Mysore. There
were therefore twelve pure races and a process of cross-breeding, rearing and
selection began. He was also experimenting to find the minimum time required
for fertilising the eggs during copulation. And he travelled around inspecting
rearings. (1920/21:1,3,6) </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">In 1922/3, Govinda Rao returned from his course in Japan.
He was put to assisting Yonemura in Mysore and extending the rearing work to
Channapatna. The policy at this stage is very clearly stated: ‘The experiments
aim at securing fixed races which while retaining all the best qualities of the
Mysore silk worm, should produce a larger quantity of silk and arrive at
maturity in a shorter time.’ Already, Rama Rao claimed, a 50-100 per cent
improvement in silk yield had been achieved 'in some cases', and 'the time
taken to reach maturity has been shortened by quite a week’. They were also
experimenting with races for the different seasons of the year, in particular
for the hot summer season and for the rains. 'The importance of this work can
hardly be exaggerated.' (p. 2) Yonemura himself reported in detail on the
year's work and his account gives a valuable impression of the complexity of
the evidence provided by breeding and rearing as to the appropriate choices for
the future. The results were clearly exciting. Various breeds had been fixed
and were doing well: a Mysore-Chinese cross for instance matured in three days
less than the Pure Mysore and showed an improvement of 50 to 90 per cent in the
weight of silk and 10 to 40 per cent in the length of filament (p.3). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">Some conspicuous successes were also scored in field
trials. In the June-August rearing of 1922, this fixed breed, now called 'M<sub>2</sub>D
(white)', was tried in Kunigal. 28 kgs per 100 layings were obtained in 24
days, 'with almost no sort of trouble'. Out of this both pure and F<sub>1 </sub>hybrid
with Mysore were prepared for distribution. For the August-September rearing,
this same material was distributed in Channapatna and was deemed to have done
better still: 'this season of the year is very suitable for the rearing of any
variety of silk worms, especially for the fixed breeds, and as a consequence
the development of the worms was quite marvellous and they spun unexpectedly
large cocoons'. By comparison with the fixed breeds, the F<sub>1</sub> seems to
have done less well. Overall they got 23 kgs per 100 layings, but what was more
impressive was that, out of the 200 fixed race and 300 F<sub>1</sub> provided
to a new but obviously very large-scale rearer who was just starting his
probably well supervised business in Chamarajanagar, 470 layings hatched in one
morning and gave 364 lbs of cocoons, 35 kgs per 100, 'a crop which can never be
got with the Mysore race, never mind how expert the rearer, or how favourable
the conditions'. They had taken 27 or 28 days, using 4,700 lbs of leaves,
rather over 2 tonnes. The experience gave a great stimulus to rearing in the
area and have had a marked effect on the development of the industry’. (p.4/5)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">For the fifth rearing of the official year, in
January-March 1923, they repeated the old set and added one new. F<sub>1</sub>
hybrids were coming to the fore. They distributed more than 3000 layings of
these and of M<sub>2</sub>D (white), mainly this time in Chamarajanagar, but
also some in Devanahalli and Channapatna. The hybrid did well in all cases in
Chamarajanagar and in Devanahalli but not so well in Channapatna. This success
was even more conspicuous in the following, overlapping rearing between
February and April. High temperature and humidity led them not to distribute
the fixed breeds but to concentrate on the F<sub>1</sub>, believing that it
could yield better crops despite the unfavourable season. It was therefore
reared in the Farm as well as by a few farmers. In the Farm, from 23 to 31 kgs
were obtained, and private rearers did well too. As a whole the crop showed a
gain of 3-4 days in rearing time, 44% in cocoon weight, 70% in shell
proportion, 43-50% in silk, and 34-40% in length. At last Yonemura had a sense
of really having discovered something. He writes, in the first person for the
first time in his own report from which most of the above detail is taken, 'Considering
from the above results I prepared more than 1,000 layings of hybrid between
Mysore and the fixed breed and distributed them to the raiyats of Nanjangud,
Yelandur, Agara, etc.' In fact he was now using one new fixed breed and five
different F<sub>1</sub> hybrids of Mysore and a fixed breed. The results were
good but are not reported in detail here (pp.3-7). This was now in the next
reporting year, 1923/4, and Yonemura was apparently at the end of his time (p.6/7).
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">In that year no general report seems to have been
published: there was only ‘A brief report of work done in the reeling section
at Mysore’. K. Shamsuddin Khan had taken over as ‘Officer in Charge of the
Office of the Silk Expert in Mysore’. Though the focus seemed to have firmly
shifted onto the hybrids and they were rearing fourteen, besides pure and fixed
races, and reporting their performance in the different seasons, there was no
reflection on the wider significance of what might be achieved for the
industry. A more specialised and enclosed or ‘scientific’ ethos was perhaps
taking over as far as experimentation was concerned, with the raiyats and their
rearings no longer in evidence. The ‘tentative conclusions’ reached were: </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">1. Univoltines show a
tendency towards multivoltinism but temperature seems to retard this change.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>2. In hybrid races multivoltinism is
the character which takes longest to fix.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">3. Different origins
seem to impart different fitnesses to environmental factors: the<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Chinese withstand humidity, the <span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Japanese low temperatures, the European
dryness.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">4. The limit of
improvement to Pure Mysore has not been reached, and this should<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>therefore be taken up.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">But amongst elaborate tables of treatments and results is
to be found the comparison which in retrospect is historic. It is between Pure
Mysore and F<sub>1</sub> Mysore x Nichi 106 white (Japanese): </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-left: -70.9pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 3;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>Silk %<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Filament
length (m)<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Denier
<span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>Pure Mysore<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>13.4-16.0<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>260-393<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1.35-2.1</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>The
hybrid<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>14.0-18.2<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>325-436<span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>1.38-2.17</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span><span style="mso-tab-count: 1;"> </span>(1923/4:3-7)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The next step from experiment to introducing the products
of experiment into production had already been precipitated by a seed crisis
the previous year. Climatic conditions in the commercial seed areas had been
disastrous and lack of supply endangered the industry. In these circumstances
emergency measures were required. The Department organised a Seed Campaign and
made available ‘not less than 6 million excellent seed cocoons through selected
rearers at Kunigal, Bidadi, Mylapatna and elsewhere. Even seed of new races and
hybrids selected by Yonemura was included. The Department had, it was claimed
‘prevented a bad season of unsuccessful rearings and wasted mulberry leaves’.
(1922/3:1) It was doubtless a hectic prelude to the excitements of the
following year.</span> </div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0"><tbody>
<tr><td bgcolor="white" height="23" style="background: white; border: .75pt solid black; vertical-align: top;" width="352"><br /></td>
</tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">The future was visible and
the need to develop aided grainages in order to popularise the more productive
possibilities was seen. In 1924/5 however, 88% of the output of Department
grainages was still the Pure Mysore. The rest was made up of new races and
hybrids, i.e. F<sub>1,</sub></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%;"> mostly produced at Channapatna. (p.2)</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;"></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%;">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 115%;">
<br /></div>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
<br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a> The Annual Reports
were mostly the work of Rama Rao as Superintendent of Sericulture. First references
to them are shown with the official year of the Report followed by the relevant
page/s; subsequent references to the same year show only the page/s, e,g. (p.2).
</div>
</div>
</div>
Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-14858924748331215742013-03-06T04:27:00.000-08:002013-03-06T04:37:26.448-08:00The Patunulkarans<b>S<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">ilk weavers, immigration and textiles
from the 5<sup>th</sup> century AD</span></b><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The
most striking ancient historical evidence relating to silk in South India</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"> so far noted refers to the
weavers of silk rather than to the raw material they used or even their
products. It is a Sanskrit eulogy in the poetic style of the period, composed
by poet Vatsabhatti for a guild of silk weavers and inscribed on a black stone
slab built into the wall of a river ghat in the ancient city of Mandasor in
Madhya Pradesh. It praises the great Kumaragupta the First, who reigned from AD
415 to 455, Emperor of the Gupta Empire of northern India, and the local king
Bandhuvarman who is described as Governor of the city. Rulers, the city and the
guild itself are extensively eulogised in picturesque terms.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a> </span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The work gave priority to
immigrants amongst the glories of the city. At an earlier period, it was
claimed, a band of migrants had moved to Dasápur as it was then called, from a
district of what is now Gujarat to the west, either Lâta or, as it later came
to be thought, Saurashtra in the peninsula of Kathiawad. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Line 3, Verses 4-5.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">From the district of Lāta, which is pleasing with
choice trees that are bowed down by the weight of (their) flowers, and with
temples and assembly-halls pleasure gardens, (and) the mountains of which are
covered over with vegetation. To (this) city of Dasápura there came, full of
respect – first in thought and afterwards (in person) in a band together with
their children and kinsmen – men who were renowned in the world for (skill in
their) craft (of silk-weaving), and who, being manifestly attracted by the
virtues of the kings of the country, gave no thoughts to the continuous
discomforts of the journey and its accomplishment.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The city was beautiful; its
superiority over Lāta was clearly being claimed. It was (Verse 13) </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">embraced
by two charming rivers with tremulous greed, as if it were the body of (the
god) Smara (embraced) in secrecy by (his wives) Prīti and Rati, possessed of
heaving breasts. Like the sky with the brilliant multitudes of planets, it
shines with Brāhmans endowed with truth, patience, self-control, tranquillity,
religious vows, purity, fortitude, private study, good conduct, refinement, and
steadfastness, (and) abounding in learning and penances, and free from the
excitement of surprise. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The members of this band of
immigrants were Pattavāyakas, the name equivalent in Sanskrit to Patnulkāran or
Pattunūlkāran – ‘Silk thread people’ – by which they would later be known.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">(Verse 15.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>‘So coming together, (and) day by day having
their friendship augmented, making contacts and being gratified and treated
honourably like sons by the kings,<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>they
happily lived in the city’. (Verse 16.) Some became ‘well acquainted with the
science of archery’, others with storytelling or ‘true religion’. (Verse 17.)
‘Some excelled in their own business (of silk-weaving)’, others in astrology,
(and) even fighting.’</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Here it is clear that they
were lauding their own success, spectacularly displayed by their building of a
temple.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">(Verse 29.)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>While he, the noble Bandhuvarman, the best of kings, the
strong-shouldered one, was governing the city of Dasápura, which had been
brought to a state of great prosperity - a noble and unequalled temple of the bright-rayed
(Sun), was caused to be built by the silk-cloth weavers, as a guild, with the
stores of wealth acquired (by the exercise of their) craft; (Verse 30.) a
temple which, having broad and lofty spires, (and) resembling a mountain, (and)
white as the mass of the rays of the risen moon, shines, charming to the eye,
having the similarity of (being) the lovely crest-jewel, fixed (in its proper
place), of (this) city of the West. ... (Verse 33.) In the season when massive
breasts of women are most enjoyable or when the low thunder of the clouds in
most welcome, on the auspicious thirteenth day of the bright fortnight of the
month Sahasya, this temple was consecrated with the ceremony of auspicious
benediction.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The date derived from details in the text is AD
437/38.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Similarly, the text gives thirty six years later,
described as ‘a long time under other kings’, when part of the temple had
‘fallen into disrepair’ according to one version, or one part of it had been
‘shattered’ according to another, ‘now, in order to increase their own fame,
the whole of this most noble house of the Sun [had] been repaired again by the
munificent corporation’.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was apparently reconsecrated on the
‘second lunar day of the bright fortnight of the month Tapasya’, this being the
event occasioning the writing of the poetic eulogy by Vatsabhatti, inscribed on
the slab in Mandasor. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Subsequently, as seen in circumstantial evidence and
preserved tradition, further migration took place. A narrative of this was put
forward in the report of the Madras Census of 1901, quoted at length in
Thurston & Rangachari (1909: 160 fol.) Patnūlkārans are there described as
‘a caste of foreign weavers found in all the Tamil districts, but mainly in
Madura town, who speak Patnūli or Khatri, a dialect of Gujarāti, and came
originally from Gujarāt’. They had ‘lately taken to calling themselves Saurāshtras’
after the ‘country from which they came’ and in the Census schedules they had
frequently entered themselves as Saurāshtra Brāhmans. Contention as to their
proper caste status had been going on for at least the previous century. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">According to an account from W. Francis’ <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Madura Gazetteer</i> of 1906, Mandasaur was
destroyed by Muslim invaders and the Patnūlkārans migrated south to Dēvagiri,
capital of the Yādavas.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[3]</span></span></span></span></a> This
would have probably been during the 13<sup>th</sup> century. There, according
to one story from the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">North Arcot
District Manual</i>, they lived in twelve streets ‘entirely peopled by them’.
For some reason they did not know, ‘the residents of one of these streets were
excommunicated by the rest of the caste and expelled’. It was said to be when
they were there they also lost their assured Brahman status. They had been ‘bound
to produce a certain number of silken cloths at each Dīpāvali feast in Dēvagiri
for the goddess Lakshmi. One year their supply fell short, and they were cursed
by the goddess, who decreed that they should no longer be regarded as Brāhmans.
They, however, still claim to be such, and follow the customs of that caste,
though they refuse to eat with them’<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[4]</span></span></span></span></a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">For whatever reasons, it is apparent that at least
some of them moved south again, now into Vijayanagar, the
Telugu/Kannada-speaking Empire which was able to maintain a measure of Hindu
dominance across most of southern India from its official foundation in 1336 to
its final defeat by combined Muslim powers in 1565. Within the rich and lavish
cultural context that it created during this long period, there would have been
ample demand for the high quality fabrics that appear to have remained the
hereditary speciality of the Patnūlkārans over the centuries. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">In Mysore soon after the fall of Seringapatam to the
East India Company and its allies in 1799, it was silk-weavers known there as
Patvēgāras<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[5]</span></span></span></span></a> who
attracted the close attention of the Scott, Francis Buchanan, on a great
journey of enquiry from Madras across Mysore to the Malabar coast in the west.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[6]</span></span></span></span></a> He
placed these silk weavers as heading the ranks of weaver castes in South India,
working mainly with cotton, but also with silk alone and for fabrics of fine
cotton with silk borders. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Buchanan attends also to the array of other weavers
in the region. They usually worked in small units of master weaver and from two
to five of his ‘servants’, and would carry out most of the weaving and dyeing
work themselves. The servants were paid on a piecework basis, with slightly
higher rates for those weaving combinations of silk and cotton than for plain
silk. He observed that it was not usual for any weavers except Whalliaru
[Holeyas] to work part time in agriculture, though ‘many persons of castes that
ought to be weavers, are in fact farmers’. As for the raw silk they used, it
was all imported by Bangalore merchants (loc.cit.). The most costly by far was
the Chinese, white and yellow, with the former rather more so than the latter.
Rajanagari silk, in both colours and presumably from Bengal, was available at
about 2/3rds the price, and muga wild silk at about a quarter (op.cit.: 196). </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The Patvēgāras mainly made cloth of a very rich and
strong fabric for nine named kinds of garment. Buchanan explains that Hindus
rarely wore cut and stitched clothes, instead obtaining pieces of fabric woven
to the appropriate size for wrapping round parts of the body as required. These
they made in children’s sizes as well as for adults, male as well as female.
The customers would necessarily have been relatively wealthy. The first five
garments he lists used similarly patterned silks, differentiated by the colours
used and ‘the different figures woven in the cloth.’ ‘If any person chooses to
commission them, whatever parts of the pattern he likes may be wrought in gold
thread; but, as this greatly enhances the value, such cloths are never wrought
except when commissioned’. The sixth kind he lists is called <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">shalnama</i>, a shawl for wrapping round
head and shoulders of men, with smaller ones again for children. These were
also strong and rich but distinguished by the use of figures like those on
Kashmiri shawls (Buchanan 1807: 208). A number of other luxurious lines were
also noted, including <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">sada putayshina</i>,
a thin white muslin with silk borders ‘either plain or dotted in the loom with
silk or cotton thread’ and often with gold and silver ornament. Buchanan
pronounces it ‘an elegant manufacture’. Other variants are described too:
coloured striped muslin with silk borders and another with the muslin green,
perhaps a difficult colour to achieve. The latter was also made by Devangas,
widespread competitors in the high quality market, whose version of this was,
Buchanan states, of finer quality. Other weavers, apparently less numerous,
called Cuttery, who claimed to be Kshatriyas by caste, produced exactly the
same items as the Patvēgāras. </span><br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">There was therefore a class of producers of
luxury bespoke silk goods, these to be sold at up to four times the best of
three recognised qualities of the same items often produced for public sale.
Buchanan, himself from an aristocratic family background, appreciated the
‘capability of the Bangalore weavers to make rich, very fine and elegant cloth
of every kind that may be in demand’. The manufacturers told him, with a little
exaggeration perhaps, that all the demand for these goods was in ‘the country
formerly belonging to Tippoo’. They were accustomed to working for the court at
Seringapatam, and it struck him that they must now, ‘labour under great
disadvantages: for it never can be expected that the court of Mysore should
equal that of Seringapatam’, recently destroyed, ‘nor will the English officers
ever demand the native goods so much as the Musselmen Sirdars did’
(op.cit.:221). </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">By the start of the nineteenth century, as this
narrative shows, the Patnūlkārans or Patvēgāras had spread into the domains of
Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan, as well as into the Presidency of Madras. In
Madurai within the Presidency, it was noted <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>at the beginning of the 20<sup>th</sup>
century that most Patnūlkārans could still speak Telugu and that their own
Patnūli language included many Kannada and Telugu words.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[7]</span></span></span></span></a> From
North Arcot comes also a list of the places they had settled: Tirupati, Arni
and Vellore, and further south again to Trichinopoly, Tanjavur, Madurai ‘and
other large towns where they carried on their trade of silk-weaving’. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Notes on other matters of interest come from the
Mysore Census Report of 1891. The Patnūlkārans then made ‘a fine stuff called <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">katni</i><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn8" name="_ftnref8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[8]</span></span></span></span></a>, which
no other weavers [were] said to be able to prepare’. It was ‘largely used by
Mussalmans for trousers and lungas (gowns)’. They also said that about
twenty-five of their families living in Tanjavur district were taken by Hyder
Ali when returning from his campaigns in the Carnatic against Madras, to his
capital, Srirangapatna. There they were placed in his artisan settlement at
Ganjam nearby, and exempted from ‘certain taxes’ ‘to encourage silk and velvet
weaving’. ‘The industry flourished till the fall of Srirangapatna [in 1799],
when most of the class fled from the country, only a few having survived those
troublous times’.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>By 1891 there were
only 254 Patnūlkārans registered in the Mysore Census, and they were making
carpets in Bangalore (Thurston & Rangachari 1909: 160-177 facing). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
<br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The text here
was extracted mainly from the translation as published by John F. Fleet 1888, accessed
online, 20.04.2012, in ‘Mandasaur – Jatland Wiki’, a compilation by Laxman
Burdak. The presence of mistakes of translation as well as sources for
correction are noted. Another version, less filled out and probably less
imaginative, is available at his op.cit.: 22-32. See also Bühler 1973, a
reprint of the original translation from his German original of 1913.<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"> </b>Successive translations copy and
modify in varying degree.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[2]</span></span></span></span></span></a></span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="font-size: small;"> Another translation offers</span>
</span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">‘magnanimous
guild’ (Verse 36/37).</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[3]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">It would later, in the era of Muslim dominance
in the 14<sup>th</sup> century, become Daulātabād, the Tagluq capital to which
an attempt to remove the inhabitants of Delhi was made. Its fort near
Aurangabad remains the most spectacular in the state of Maharashtra and a major
tourist destination.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn4" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[4]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">See Ramaswamy
1985: 160-61, for an interesting case of contested claim to Brahmin status. For
Patnūlkārans, see also Thurston & Rangachari 1909: 160-177 facing.</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn5" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[5]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">Or Pattuegars in Buchanan’s transliteration,
the Kannada equivalent of the caste name, Patnūlkāran. See Thurston &
Rangachari 1909: 187/88.</span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn6" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[6]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 115%;">
</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The 3 volumes of his
invaluable reports on the detailed enquiries he made into the country and its
inhabitants on </span><i><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 115%;">A journey from Madras through the Countries of
Mysore, Canara and Malabar</span></i><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 115%;"> were published in London in
1807.</span></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn7" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref7" name="_ftn7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">[</span>7]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The
Telugu-speaking Devanga weavers, dominant caste of Kollegal town, a
sericultural centre on the edge of Karnataka but once in the Coimbatore
District of the Madras Presidency, have a comparable history. They were
encountered as active across the silk trades in the 1970s. (Charsley 1980:
1755-64).</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn8" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-size: small;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref8" name="_ftn8" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn8;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[8]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="line-height: 115%;"> <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Katni</i>: probably the more widely recognized ‘<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">patni</i>, Anglo-Indian ‘putney’ (<i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Hobson-Jobson</i>
1886), referring to silk fabric of high quality such as the commissioned items
noted above.</span></span></div>
</div>
</div>
Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-47702752969657467992013-03-05T07:47:00.001-08:002013-03-05T07:47:17.285-08:00James Anderson of Madras - 3<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:WordDocument> <w:View>Normal</w:View> <w:Zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:DoNotOptimizeForBrowser/> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><br />
<h3 class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-size: 10pt;"> <span style="font-weight: bold;">Anderson versus the East India Company</span></span></h3>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Anderson's relationship with the Governor and the Board of Revenue who represented the Company's interests in Madras, and no doubt their own too, was a significant part of the problems he faced. Their priorities were different. The Company was concerned first with raising revenue in the form of rents and taxes. If there was a need for investment it had to be in enterprises which would clearly yield a profit to the Company, and in the shortest possible time. Anderson, on the other hand, saw the plight of the people, both as a result of the recent wars and other disasters and from a long-term absence of conditions to encourage development. He noted particularly the miserable condition of the lower classes and those who would later be identified as 'untouchables'. He saw an important part of their problems facing them as a shortage of demand for their labour over a large part of the year. Encouraging economic activity was therefore his priority, by making new crops and new enterprises available and by helping people to obtain the resources, land in particular, which they could make productive. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">He did his best to persuade the Company, first, that putting money into sericultural development would be profitable for it. In doing so he certainly exaggerated the speed with which this could possibly be achieved; he had perhaps to do so in order to interest the Company at all. But it is also clear with hindsight that, as a pioneer, there was no way he could know either the hazards awaiting him or the timescale required for such a major enterprise. He was probably not the first, and certainly not the last promoter of development to find himself in this predicament.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">It was over the second part of the policy, getting private people into sericulture, that the major clash came. There were two routes here. One was to lure ordinary people into sericulture by example and incentive. The example was to be provided by the the more or less official European plantations that he encouraged vigorously though his correspondence and its publication particularly. The wide scatter of such plantations achieved were intended to demonstrate rearing and even reeling. The incentives came later in trying to boost interest amongst Indians by providing mulberry cuttings and silkworm eggs and necessary equipment, and guaranteeing to buy villagers' output, both of mulberry leaves and cocoons. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">It was this second route which caused the trouble. This was the provision of land for large-scale sericultural enterprises, either for Europeans, though Company policy at the time was in general against putting land into European hands, or for wealthy Indians. In Anderson's eyes the country was empty; there were huge amounts of land cultivated before the 1780 war that had dropped out of cultivation, in addition to waste land which had never apparently been used at all. Surely, he thought and repeatedly said in a barrage of increasingly heated letters to the Governor and the Board, when the future prosperity of the country was at stake land could be found and provided on terms which would encourage people to take it up and get on with planting the extensive areas of mulberry which would be needed. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The Company, however, was concerned - as always - with revenue, but also with the tangle of existing rights and claims to land. No clear policy had yet been arrived at for sorting out a system of landholding and revenue such as would later be achieved with 'permanent settlements', and there was as yet little understanding of principles and less in the way of surveys on the ground. The Company agreed with Anderson that the land had to be brought back into cultivation but it was also worried about the practical difficulties of doing this. A worry was that revenue incentives to take up new land would simply encourage people to abandon their existing lands for new on which they would pay less. There would be a net loss of revenue and no net gain in land farmed. With so much unresolved, there were long delays in dealing with applications and the terms ultimately offered were not encouraging. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Anderson raged at the officials, portraying them as bureaucratic nigglers and wasters who did not have the interests of the country at heart. Since he had powerful backing from the Directors in London, they put up with this patiently - in contrast to an earlier occasion when he had been told bluntly to mind his own business and stick to his medical department. They even did their best to oblige him. At the same time, however, having ceased to answer his letters over several months, the Board of Revenue wrote complaining of his behaviour to the Governor, taking the opportunity at the same time to formulate serious doubts about his schemes. The Governor replied: 'we hope the Doctor will, for the sake of the object he professes to promote, adopt a more conciliating and respectful conduct towards you in future'. The correspondence was copied to Anderson, who promptly responded, on 22 February 1794, that he had therefore to 'decline any further interference'; he would, that is to say, pull out of the enterprise, including, as it soon turned out, the supervision of Parkison's farm at Vellout. </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">He could not, after a delay of a few months, resist again pursuing his interests in sericultural promotion generally, and he continued to rear worms in Madras for some time, but his impetus behind official involvement with sericultural promotion was at an end. It took a little time for the Company's projects to be liquidated but, by the time of the last Mysore War in 1799 which was to put an end to Tipu's sericultural initiatives, it too had abandoned sericultural development.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">In the event, neither in the Company's territory nor in Mysore was this the end of sericulture. It survived surprisingly in a few remote spots, but evidence now emerging suggests that there were two more major sources of continuity. From an early stage Anderson had been interested in encouraging Indian princes to concern themselves with sericulture. The Nawab of Arcot himself always perhaps had too many more urgent concerns; at any rate he did not pursue it. Two of his sons who held court at Trichinopoly were, however, interested and so, more importantly, was his brother, Abdul Wahab Khan, at Chittoor. He established a plantation and sent people to learn reeling in Madras. There it was possible to breed much more securely than on the coast where it turned out to be increasingly difficult even to maintain silkworm stock through the monsoon period. It was largely owing to eggs from Chittoor that it was possible to revive rearing on the coast in both 1795 and 1796. When the Company closed the Vellout farm it was to Chittoor that some of the staff went for work. No evidence has yet emerged for events there over the next generation, but it is suggestive at least that, in the 1830s, before the sericultural enthusiasm of the 1840s set in, there was already a substantial sericultural establishment at Chittoor, with a Mr Groves in charge.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The other focus of interest is the Baramahal, the area ceded by Mysore to the Company in 1792 which is now mostly Dharmapuri and Salem Districts of Tamil Nadu. This was new and the Company's own, and Capt. Alexander Read with the assistance of Thomas Munro and others were sent to take charge of it. Their first responsibility was to work out how revenue was to be raised from its land; it was here indeed that the <i>ryotwari</i> system of land revenue subsequently applied across large areas of India was first worked out. But they were also, in conjunction with this, concerned with the economic development of the country. They investigated crops which might be profitably grown and transported, and amongst these was silk. Another assistant, Eyre W. Lyte, a former planter in the West Indies, was responsible for this and he had the assistance of Mohamed Arif, the Bengali who had set up Anderson's filature in Madras and had worked with him for five years. In 1795/6, again with direct support from Anderson, they established a 54-acre plantation and started rearing and reeling at Tirupattur. This was an enterprise opening up inland at just the time when, on the coast, the decision to close down was being taken. As at Chittoor, there is then a gap in the record which waits to be filled, but it is at least suggestive that it was not far away, in Denkanicota, that sericulture was found already established in the 1830s. Whether this was a relic of Tipu's Mysore schemes or Anderson's from Madras remains to be established.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;"><b>Conclusion</b> </span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">The creation and operation of the farm is the focus for the next section. Suffice it to say here that, despite all the best efforts and ingenuity of both Parkison and Anderson, the Company abandoned its silk projects and closed the plantation in September 1798. If, contrary to all Anderson's optimism, silk could not to be produced on the Madras coast, it was here that the practical and financial issues were experimented with and fought over and a conclusive decision reached.</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: 10pt;">Anderson died in Madras in 1809. Doubtless he was disappointed in the failure of the Company's sericultural schemes, but perhaps he died with the knowledge of Indian enterprise continuing. He wrote to Parkison in 1796, of new initiatives, that there would be 'time enough after the management of the worms is in the hands of the country people'. His many successors in sericultural development have indeed taken him up on this. </span></div>
Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-42939526760977090472013-03-05T03:52:00.001-08:002013-03-05T03:52:15.808-08:00New century: advance & frustration<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 11.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";"><br /></span></span></h2>
<div align="center" class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; mso-outline-level: 1; text-align: center;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";">Quddus, a
Government Silk Farm and the Italian Silk Expert</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";">Around the
beginning of the 20<sup>th</sup> century and into the years of the First World
War, major steps were being taken towards direct government involvement in
sericultural development in Mysore. In 1904 a Canadian scientist, Dr Leslie
Coleman, had been appointed Government Entomologist and Mycologist for Mysore.
Starting as a lone officer with a limited brief, he established himself and in
1911 became the first Director of Agriculture under the Economic Conference of
Mysore, with responsibility for sericulture<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a>.
Abdul Quddus claims in his evidence given to the ITB enquiry (1935: 501) that
his family in 1905-07 had 'induced Mills like the Sassoon and Alliance Silk
Mill of Bombay to use Mysore silk and silk waste for weaving in place of
Japanese stuff', also that ‘measures to prevent and cure diseases affecting
cocoons’ were ‘concerted with the co-operation of well-known firms, like Hashim
Arif Brothers & Co. of Bengal Silk Mills Co. in Calcutta'. The Administration
Report for 1907 comments: 'It is interesting to note that a co-operative credit
society has been formed in the Mysore District with the object of starting
power-reeling, dyeing and other operations connected with the silk industry to
deal with the raw produce now largely exported from the State'. There was a
'Steam Silk Factory' operating at Closepet [subsequently Ramanagaram], as well
as the Tata filature in Bangalore employing 30 people. By 1912/3 the latter was
employing 84 people. This was the time at which Alfred Chatterton, another
luminary of Mysore life, arrived from Madras to take charge of a Department of
Industries and Trade which would be responsible for silk reeling and other
processing in that presidency’s industry. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";">As a future
centre for the development of sericulture itself, the basis that had been laid
by the Mustan family in Channapatna and their current representative, F.M.
Abdul Quddus, proved decisive. </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;">A plaque in the 1990s
still witnessed that Shahukar Mahamad Hyder Sahib and his son, Abdul Quddus had
by 1915 given 'the premises and some structures' – in fact land and an old
house – to the Mysore Government for the establishment of a Central Silk Farm
at Channapatna. Quddus was to add more land in 1918 and 1930 (ITB 1935: 501), </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";">using the old
house given for the purpose by the firm. A little paradoxically, this was to be
the base for Washington Mari, ‘Italian Silk Expert’, whose appointment Quddus
had opposed. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";">Mari had arrived
to take up his position at the end of 1913, and his involvement represents a
further episode in a somewhat tense relationship between Italian sericultural
experts and the British in India. According to Maxwell-Lefroy, it was out of a
concern to develop reeling that Chatterton contacted the Italian Consul-General
at Bombay, Dr Gorio. He was connected with an Italian firm spinning silk waste
and exporting spun silk to India. His advice was to forget about developing reeling
as a cottage industry, to concentrate on producing cocoons and improving their
quality. These might then be exported to Italy. He suggested the appointment of
the Italian expert. Mari himself, as Maxwell-Lefroy writes in his clearly
partisan telling of the story, was interested in the production of silkworm
seed in Italy where he was part-owner of a grainage, for export to India. His
activities in India were, Lefroy hints, a response to his own and his country’s
interests more generally (Maxwell-Lefroy 1917: 32). What the record shows,
however, is that Mari had considerable success in the short time that he stayed
(see Department of Agriculture Report, 1939). He arranged to import eleven
white European silkworm races and one yellow Chinese,<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[2]</span></span></span></span></span></a>
to be maintained on the farm at Channapatna; he prepared a successful hybrid of
Mysore and these foreign races; he inspected operations in the field and
experimented with disease-free rearing of all the varieties of eggs around,
making a beginning in manufacturing and issuing Pasteur’s ‘cellular seed'. He
also started the farm at Channapatna, where seven Sericultural Inspectors were
employed and trained, as well as other potential staff.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[3]</span></span></span></span></span></a>
Demonstration rearing houses in which Italian methods were shown were
established: a model rearing house was to be opened at Karohatti, or Kerehatti,
a small village 3 kms south of T. Narasipur town, described as 'the seat of
sericulture' in the <i>Taluk Handbook </i>of c. 1917. There were four other
experimental farms. One at Chikballapur was moved to Kolar and a new one
established at Hassan as part of a policy already in place to extend
sericulture into new areas. From Kadur District, reports were favourable but
from the two areas further north, Shimoga and Chitradurga, they were not (<span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">Admin Report 1914/5</span>, quoted by
Maxwell-Lefroy 1917:34). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";">Mari also developed
a hot-air chamber for drying – ‘stiffling’ – cocoons, perhaps for supplying to
Italy. Separately however, experiments towards improved reeling methods were
set up by the Department of Industry and Commerce, this with a view to producing
raw silk at home in India rather than sending cocoons abroad. The machinery for
a second filature to be established at Channapatna was constructed in the
Industrial School that had been started there. This, however, was hardly open
before it had closed again, in 1914/15 when it was said to be already suffering
owing the wartime disruption of demand in the industry. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; mso-outline-level: 1;">
<b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";">Abdul Quddus and the Mysore Silk Association</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";">If the
employment of Mari, though not his location at Channapatna, was something of a defeat
for Quddus, he had compensation soon in the shape of the establishment of a
Mysore Silk Association. This was not yet the associations in each village
which he envisaged as a major force for development, but it was a start. On 2nd
April 1914 there was a grand inauguration held in front of the Office of the
Silk Expert in Channapatna. Sirdar Sir M. Kantaraj Urs, C.S.I.<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[4]</span></span></span></span></span></a>,
a member of the Maharaja's Council and destined to succeed the renowned Sir M. Visveshwarayya,
the current Dewan of Mysore, was in the chair. Quddus was the President of the
new association and he made the opening speech. It was on this occasion that he
claimed that Dewan Purnaiah had chosen his ancestor, Peer Mohammad Sahib, to
develop the industry and went on to review major events and problems since that
time. He even acknowledged the help of a 'brother silk-man’, M.C. Srikanaiah,
the representative in Mysore of Messrs B.G. Gorio and Company, of Bombay and
Milan, the company with which the Consul-General who had recommended Mari was
associated. And in relation to Mari himself, Quddus was, as befitted the
occasion, generous. Despite the abnormal heat of the year – and they were then
in the hot season – Mari had already successfully reared two crops (Quddus
1923: 89-96). He then responded, apparently briefly. He mentioned that he had a
younger brother, Benito, who was a barrister, but who was engaged with their
own Silk Farm and had been deputed by the Goverment to China to find out new
races. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";">Kantaraj Urs
then spoke. He referred to the income from the industry as estimated at not
less than a crore of rupees per year, i.e. 10 million, but noted that the
industry was limited at present to parts of Bangalore, Tumkur, Kolar and Mysore
districts. Export of cocoons was widespread, 'even to Benares': a few years before,
a well-known French firm had established a filature on the borders of Mysore and
had also exported cocoons to Bengal. The export of silk waste was a big
business too. However, the industry was, he agreed with the Government of
India, 'slowly but surely declining’. It was ‘said that from 30 to 45 per cent
of each crop is being lost'. The Government in the last three or four years had
adopted special measures. They had trained Inspectors ‘to explain improved
methods to the ryots and are publishing from time to time valuable literature
both in English and Kannada language'. They had employed 'an Italian Expert of
great fame who is organising his Central Farm'. His first aim is to establish
seed depots and distribute disease-free eggs to the ryots.' The Director of
Industries and Commerce has opened a filature in Channapatna, and that place
was promising ' to become a great educational and experimental centre in
sericulture'. As to the Association, he congratulated Abdul Quddus on
organising it. 'The great dangers you should bear in mind and guard against are
such as internal factions, petty jealousies, sectarian bias and lethargic
habits'. It was to have a grant from Government matching the money they could
raise by private subscription, up to a limit of Rs 500 per year, and the
Government was to approve the programme of work and expenditure in advance. A
report was to be submitted by July 31st each year, and there was a stern
warning: 'the grant will be liable to be cancelled if sufficient work has not,
in their opinion, been done.' (Quddus 1923: 98-106)</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";">The
Association, or perhaps mainly Adbul Quddus, was busy. In March 1915 the
filature which had been constructed in Channapatna was handed over to the
Association to manage for two years. Previous arrangements to run it had not
worked out and many of the basins were out of action. By May the filature was
able to reopen, with eleven basins operative; six more were still under repair.
Of the eleven, eight were to be worked commercially, three used for training
new reelers. The Association employed a manager, a clerk and two 'servants'.
The latter were to supply water to the boiler and basins and to turn the reels.
The reelers themselves were on monthly wages. A government subsidy of Rs 60 per
month was provided but it was found insufficient. There was a problem also in
getting the silk it produced noticed by potential buyers. This would it was
hoped, be solved by supplying it to the Government Weaving Factory in Mysore. Loss
of silk and the value of what was being produced needed to be dealt with too.
This would require the training of new workers but would mean additional costs.
Abdul Quddus made up for the shortfall on the government subsidy out of his own
pocket, but could not go on doing so. By the time he had to close the filature
at the end of 1916 – <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>with the permission
of the Government he notes – and the return of machinery to them, he was Rs
3,000 out of pocket. (Quddus 1923: 107-10). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";">He commented
sadly, 'in spite of all my best efforts I was not able to keep alive the
Association longer than the year 1917, owing to the want of response from the
capitalists and ryots engaged in sericulture' (Quddus 1923: 106). </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<br /></div>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
<br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-font-weight: bold; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a>
This is the same year in which legal regulation of sericulture was adopted by
the Government of Japan. Maxwell-Lefroy (1917: 206) </div>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[2]</span></span></span></span></span></a> These are described
elsewhere as '12 Italian races' (Vengopalan Nair, 1982: 899)</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[3]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Maxwell-Lefroy
states that at least one person who had been for training in Japan was employed
by the State (1917: 33), but this may have been a confusion with K.T. Achaya,
employed by Madras, who had been sent to Japan and Kashmir about 1910 (ITB
1935a: 214).</div>
</div>
<div id="ftn4" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: Arial;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: Arial; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[4]</span></span></span></span></span></a> Companion of the
Star of India. See <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M._Kantaraj_Urs">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M._Kantaraj_Urs</a>
for his close connection with the Mysore Royal Family and his long Civil
Service career, ending as Dewan of Mysore, 1918-22.</div>
</div>
</div>
Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-42629874746526864122013-03-04T09:52:00.000-08:002013-03-04T11:46:01.667-08:00Manual for Sericulture in Mysore<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<h2>
<span style="font-size: small;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b><span style="line-height: 115%;">Dr H. De Vecchj de Piccioli</span></b></span></span></h2>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">M/S (Karnataka State Archives, Agriculture, 1837-1912, 3 of 1869)<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a>
</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><b>General Rules</b> </span>(p.1)</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">As a general rule in trying to
acclimatise in one country the products of another differing from it in respect
of climate, as Japan and Mysore – <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>it is
necessary to be particularly careful and to take certain minute precautions in
order to compensate for each difference.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Japanese worms are very delicate
and it is their nature to be affected by variations of temperature. For these
reasons, the cultivators who would wish to obtain good results in the breeding
of Japanese silk worms should observe as much as possible the following simple
instructions.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Incubation and
hatching</span></u></div>
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<u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><br /></span></u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">A few days before the eggs are
expected to hatch, they must be washed several times for (p.2) the purpose of
removing from them dust and other particles that might be covering them.
Experience has proved that when the eggs are properly washed in cold water and
when they are thereby subjected to a low temperature and made properly clean
they hatch more {readily} and regularly. The eggs should be washed in a salt
water bath. For that purpose a large bowl should be taken and filled to the two
thirds with clear water to which salt should be added [‘x’ in margin] in
proportion of ‘x’ 6 tolas for every large {chatty<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[2]</span></span></span></span></span></a>}.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">When the salt is well dissolved, the cartoons<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[3]</span></span></span></span></span></a>
must be placed in the bath and it must be left there for two days; and {precaution}
should be taken to press them from time to time in order that the liquid may
penetrate everywhere and operate equally on all points of the cartoons. The
effect of the salt is to ...<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>... take
away the dirt without affecting the ... of the egg which is covered with a thin...}
shell devoid of pores. In certain warm countries as (p.3) in Abyssinia and in
certain parts of China this bath is kept in for five days in freezing water. In
Mysore it would be proper to be satisfied with forty eight hours. At the end of
that time the salt water must be decanted and clear fresh water substituted
several times until there remains no salt left in the chatty, as may be
ascertained by tasting for instance. For further precaution it would be
advisable to leave the cartoons for ... more hours in fresh water and then they
must be removed and spread with precaution, one by one on baskets prepared for
their reception, and they should be allowed to dry in the shade. The cartoons
should be frequently turned to allow them to dry more rapidly. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">When the cartoons are perfectly
dry they should be carried into the chamber where they are to be hatched. The
place should be free from damp and it should be protected ... as much as
possible from currents of air. In case the hatching chamber be damp it is
necessary to dry it by keeping in it a sufficient quantity of (p.4) { if<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>... ... ... without ...} the place be exposed
to currents of air, it {may} be sufficient to place mats on the doors and
windows for the purpose of keeping out ... gusts of wind. The breeding chamber {should}
be kept perfectly clean from dust, epidemics and all sorts of filth. The
baskets and stands ... properly washed and cleaned, and if possible the walls
should be freshly whitewashed. {Mairukoturi}, one of the best Japanese ... in
his treatise on the breeding of Silk worms commends besides that all strong
smells ... of tobacco, of onion, or garlic should not be in the breeding room, that
unclean {people} should not be allowed to attend to the {worms}which are
particularly liable to be affected by smells. {He also recommends} that many
should not sleep in the breeding rooms, because during the night the air in the
chamber ... not renewed but is tainted by the breath {and} perspiration of the
sleepers and it becomes polluted and unhealthy. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">(p.5) When the young worms begin
to appear they should not be fed forthwith, but it is advisable to wait until a
certain quantity of them are out of the shell. As the hatching usually begins
at about eight o’clock in the morning it would be advisable to wait till two to
feed them for the first time. The neglect of the precaution is the cause of
much inequality in the size and age of the worms of one batch. It is strictly
necessary to set aside the horrid practice in Mysore of detaching the worms
from the cartoons by scraping them off with a feather. The small delicate
creatures by being {dragged} over the hard and grainy surface of the cartoons
are killed in large numbers and those that escape are generally more or less
hurt. It is also necessary to abandon the practice of laying large leaves over
the eggs to remove the young worms. Because the large leaves by being wet and
cold absorb the heat of the minute worms and kill them, by lowering the
temperature of the eggs fatally arrest the [‘x’ and underlining, with marginal
‘x’ and ‘hatching’]. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The only proper way of acting is
as follows. When a large number of worms have made (p.6) their appearance, a
few leaves should be taken and cut into very fine slices which should be
sprinkled on the cartoons. The worms will {then} gather on the leaves. The cartoons
should be taken to the baskets that are prepared for the reception of the worms
and they should be gently ... so that the worms may {be moved} with the leaves.
This operation should be {performed so} that the worms do not fall from a great
{height and} should be hurt or falter by being {treated} rudely. It may happen
that all the worms have not been transferred to the {baskets} but that a few
worms still adhere to the {cartoons}. In such case these worms may be detached by
gently tapping with the finger on the back of the cartoons so as to throw down
the worms.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">It is very important for the
three or four days to keep and ... air from the breeding chamber because the
young worms are so delicate that one {gust of wind} is enough to kill the whole
of them. I have already suggested precautions to take (p.7) by placing mats on
the doors and windows. For the first three days the worms should be fed with
leaves cut very fine, in small quantities at a time but frequently, once in
every hour even to do for the first three days and after that once in every two
hours. Frequent renewal of the food is absolutely required for Japanese worms.
Because the leaves being cut very fine, are soon dry in the heated atmosphere
of the room and become quite useless as food for the worms which at this stage
are naturally voracious. If they then be deprived of food they will never be
able to recover afterwards from the evil effects of early neglect. The leaves
given during the first five days should be tender and if possible of the Sultans
leaves, which are more full of juice and more nutritious.</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">It is wrong to keep the worms in
the dark, as light is necessary to all organised and living beings, and it
promotes health and strength. The light should be admitted according to the age
of the worms. Much light is required when they are small and less when they
mature and {grow} (p.8) big. This point should be carefully attended to.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">One of the most important reasons
... applicable at every stage of the {breeding} is to give sufficient space to
the worms, {not to} be thrown one upon the other, they are ... to feed and they
dirty each other with their dung and with their perspiration and {to be} more
liable to become sick and to die. Let the worms therefore have sufficient
{space} to live and to move about. That is one of {the main} conditions of success.
The great secret for the successful breeding of worms is to give them space,
sufficient air, and good leaves {according} to their age. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">As already observed, great
variation {in} the temperature should be avoided always. If during the night
the weather is too {cold}, the room may be warmed with cow dung; if during the
day the weather is too hot, air should be admitted and a little water
{sprinkled} on the mats. But it is necessary to bear in mind<b> </b>that the
room should not be ... (p.9) as that would prove fatal to the worms. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">To clean out the worms, it is
absolutely necessary to set aside the practice of taking them up with the
fingers as in this manner the little delicate creatures are hurt. The Japanese
proceed as follows to clean the worms and they call their method ‘feather
dressing’ in imitation of the manner that a bird cleans his wings by separating
the feathers one by one with his bill. Thus the Japanese with small sticks
divide the bed into small portions which they spread over the basket, each at a
little distance from the others. This operation which requires great attention,
having been performed the worms are fed by throwing leaves in preference in the
vacant spaces of the old dry bed. There should be enough fresh leaves to level
the space occupied by the worms. The young worms will naturally abandon the old
bed to take to the fresh leaves. In regards the feather dressing it is
important to observe that more the old bed is divided in small portions the (p.10)
sooner it is dried and the less the worms are liable to sickness. Juginidaa, a
Japanese {writer} says, with a dry bed are healthy worms.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">First moulting</span></u></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The
Japanese worms for six days after being hatched become {torpid} for the first
time, and within twenty four hours they shed their first skin. Immediately afterwards
they grow considerably, it is necessary to give them more space after {this}.
For this purpose, the operation of feather dressing should be performed but on
a larger ... It must be borne in mind that if this is well done there will be no
necessity to {move} the worms from one basket into another. Feather dressing
being over, the worms should {be fed} as they feel a great want of food about
this time. Their appetite however is soon satisfied. For the first day, or if
required for the following also, the worms should be fed five times, (p.11)
that at the interval of two hours, with tender Sultans leaves. The light should
be regulated as during the first stage. If the windows have no glass shutters,
oil paper may be used as a substitute.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Second
moulting</span></u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">It
is usually after the sixth day that the worms become torpid for the second
time. At this stage the temperature should be carefully attended to. If the
weather is too warm the worms will awake too soon, and their skins not having had
enough time to be shed, will adhere about their lower extremity, causing
eventually their death. If the weather is too cold the worms will awake with a black
skin, they will have no appetite, they will be drowsy and they will soon die.
After the second moulting it is absolutely required to change the bed
altogether. For that purpose the superior layer alone of the bed ... separated from
the other layers, and later with all (p.12) the worms that are on it, to
another basket in which it should be gently placed. The old bed should be kept
for at least two hours in order that the worms that are {remaining} should have
time enough to<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>... It is by ... throwing
away {the old} bed that a large number of good worms are frequently lost.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>After the moulting, the worms should be fed
with sultan’s leaves {or} the grafted and other species lately introduced into
the country. The leaves should be cut thicker than before. During these days
the worms should be fed four times and after that at the interval of two {hours}.
It is now necessary to moderate the light. After the fifth day the bed should
be separated as prescribed above, in order that the worms may be free from damp
and bad smells ... they are torpid for the third time.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Third
moulting</span></u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">When
the worms begin to ... the third moulting it is necessary to<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>... (p.13) into another basket with the aid
of small tender mulberry branches. For that purpose small branches with the
leaves are placed over the worms, which will soon take to them. The branches
with the worms are then carried into other baskets and they are placed so that
the worms may have plenty of space, because at this stage they grow rapidly.
The light should be further moderated and fresh air may be admitted with
precaution. During the first day the worms may be fed four times and after that
at the interval of two hours. At this stage the worms should be carefully and
frequently cleaned but always with the aid of branches. The cultivator should
beware not to use the rude method of cleaning the worms by taking them up with
the finger. Want of space and cleanliness would inevitable cause a failure. For
want of space the worms will not have within their reach a sufficient quantity
of leaves to feed upon and they will die of starvation, besides being subjected
(p.14) to various diseases in consequence of ... ...</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Fourth
Moulting</span></u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The
worms take forty eight hours to shed their fourth skins. As they are {during
this} time in a torpid state, it is necessary to watch the temperature. When
the worms begin to awake they must be twice every ... into fresh baskets with
the aid of branches as already described.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>The riots should always {avoid} the practice in Mysore of picking up
{the worms} and of gathering them into a large heap and of casting them
afterwards over the baskets as if they were covering seeds. It will be {necessary}
to insist on the evil effects of this procedure.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">For
the first two days the worms are fed four times and after that at intervals of
two hours during the day and of three hours during the night, but in quantities
... according to their appetite. After this, {for the} fourth moulting, tender
leaves ... (p.15) for the feed should be adapted to the age of the worm.
Whereas tender leaves are indispensable at the beginning, they ... now prove
dangerous. For the worms want to devour them with avidity, and as they contain
but a small proportion of nourishment, the worms instead of benefiting would
suffer from indigestion and die. The loss at this stage would be so much more
serious as so much expense and labour would have been incurred in vain. Without
being tender, however, the leaves should be fresh but they should not be wet
either from rain or with dew. If the leaves have been gathered for some time, they
are apt to become heated, as may be ascertained by putting the hand in the
middle of them. If the leaves [x in margin] are heated, they must be rejected
at any cost, because they have begun to ferment and instead of being good to
feed the worms, they will act like poison. It has been already prescribed to
avoid all bad smells. The cultivators should therefore be careful not to (p.16)
cook their food over the worms room. Even ... perfumes are noxious, so that it
is wrong to place garlands of jasmine or other flowers around the baskets. Great
cleanliness should be observed at this time ... the worms eat much, {and} also
deposit dirt in large quantities. They should therefore be frequently moved
into fresh baskets, always with the aid of branches. The dung should not be
thrown on the floor but it should be collected and be carried out immediately
to the dung pit. For the smell emanating from its fermentation is very
poisonous. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Cocooning</span></u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Five
or six days after the fourth moult, the creature begins to be ripe for
cocooning. ... As they begin to abandon the centre of the basket and to climb
up the sides, it is time to prepare the arrangements necessary to assist them.
There are several ways of ... (p.17) for the formation of cocoons. The model sent
with the Manual is the best. It somewhat resembles the basket generally used in
Mysore, except that the worms are able to select their own positions instead of
being taken up by the fingers and set at random, and they are obliged to form
single cocoons, thereby avoiding the formation of double cocoons and the waste
of floss silk. While the worms are spinning they should be left very quiet. For
three days they should be kept close and partly in the dark. After that much ventilation
is good to dry the cocoons and to preserve the pupa in a healthy condition.
After six days the pupa is perfectly formed. The cocoons may then be safely
removed.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Eggs</span></u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">To
obtain good eggs it is absolutely necessary to observe the following
recommendations. First to select the best cocoons among those that (p.18) are
formed during the final two days, and remove from them the whole of the loose
floss silk, and to place them gently in clean baskets to wait for the
appearance of the moth.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Second, the
moths that have appeared during the first two days alone should be kept. All
the others should be thrown away as they are good for nothing. Thirdly, among
the moths of the first days, only those should be selected that are free from
black spots. The only good moths are those that are white and are well formed and
appear to be healthy. The male moths should flap their wings rapidly and move in
search of the female moths which should carry the lower part of their body high
and move it up and down frequently. When two moths are coupled they should be
taken away and put in a quiet place in the dark. Fourthly, {the} moths should
not be allowed to remain coupled for more than six hours, during the hot
weather or of seven hours during the cold. ... that they should be separated
gently so that the female (p.19) be not hurt. The males are then thrown away
and the females are placed for a few minutes on blotting paper to allow them to
reject a quantity of matter. They are at last placed upon the cartoons where
they are to deposit their eggs. After ten hours the female should be thrown
away, because the eggs that they lay after that time are not good. The cartoons
should be left in the same ... until the eggs are dry and become of a light
grey colour.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Conclusion</span></u><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Abundant
space, sufficient food <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>– <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>according to the age of the worms,
cleanliness, a moderate temperature, these are the great secrets by which the
Japanese have preserved their breeds of silkworms free from sickness and by
which they have obtained abundant crops.If the cultivators in Mysore would
follow these small instructions with the desire to conform to them as much as
possible, they will not fail to obtain the benefit of their exertions and they
will contribute to restore an industry which the providing care of Government
is endeavouring to promote throughout the country.</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">(p.20)<span style="mso-tab-count: 2;"> </span>Bangalore 26<sup>th</sup> March 1870<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Dr H. de Vecchj de Piccoli</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
<br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-bottom: 6pt;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> Transcribed from</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">
authorised</span><span lang="EN-US">
but amateur digital photography in the Reading Room of <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>KSA, Bangalore, 26.02.2010. It was not
possible to take apart the original manuscript, meaning that the right hand
margins of left hand pages were hidden. In addition, clarity and readability
vary considerably. Gaps are here marked ‘…’ and uncertain insertions with
brackets thus {<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>}. Mistakes and
omissions are inevitable, marked or not, and though much is completely clear,
not too much reliance should be placed on particular words appearing in this
transcription. The general sense is mostly clear.</span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-bottom: 6pt;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><span lang="EN-US">Corrections from the original
text in the Archives would be much appreciated from anyone who has the
necessary access, also information on any other texts that can be found. Please
contact <a href="mailto:simoncharsley@yahoo.co.uk">simoncharsley@yahoo.co.uk</a></span></span></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span></span>
<br />
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-bottom: 6pt;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[2]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">‘chatty’:
an earthern vessel or pitcher’ (OED).</span></span></span></div>
</div>
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><br /></span></span>
<br />
<div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;"><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[3]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US"> </span><span lang="EN-US">‘cartoon’:
doubt as to whether this term refers to paper sheets on which the eggs have
been laid, or to cartons containing them.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>‘Cocoon’ derives from French ‘cocon’, the English form established from
the early 19<sup>th</sup> century and replacing a variety of terms used
earlier. </span><span lang="EN-US"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></span></span></div>
</div>
</div>
Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-55774184471431178552013-03-02T23:59:00.001-08:002013-03-04T11:43:22.283-08:00Disease, research & control<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<h3>
<i><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">De'Vecchj
at Kengeri: experiment and crisis</span></b></i></h3>
</div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">Mysore
had by the time of Sullivan’s visit, already acquired its own ‘</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";">energetic
and intelligent European superintendence’ in the person of an Italian
entrepreneur, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">Major A.P.</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";"> De’Vecchj de Piccioli. It had
several </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">important differences to the Mutti scheme, however. De’</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";">Vecchj</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">
was not seeking employment but bringing substantial capital to invest in India,
and he had the wealth and prestige of the advanced European silk industry of
Italy directly behind him. In India he had immediate access to and support from
the highest authority in the state, Chief Commissioner Lewin Bowring, and he
was not seeking to establish a silk industry in a virtually new region and on
new lines but to improve one already long established. He was also bringing to
India the direct dependence on Japan as a major source for silkworm eggs
already found in Europe. Japan had come into the international sericultural
scene in this capacity around 1855, when pebrine was ravaging the sericulture
of Europe and the Near East </span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">In
1864, Dr E. Veechy was in correspondence with the Government of Mysore
‘regarding the improved method of sericulture’. The following year in southern
France, at Alais in the Cevennes sericultural region, Louis Pasteur, already
the pioneer of microbiological research particularly in relation to vaccines,
got to work on pebrine, a deadly silkworm disease which had by then been
decimating the European silk industry for several years.</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Courier New"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">
Despite starting off under serious misunderstandings as to what it was he was
confronting, by energetic laboratory work and within the year he had identified
the problem, discovered how the disease was passed on and how it could be
contained by microscopic examination of mother moths and the elimination of
infected offspring (Pasteur 1868, 1870; Roman 1870). </span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">In
the same year, 1865, a Major A.P. De'Vecchj, obtained land from the Government for
a silk farm and filiature at Kengeri near Bangalore, at the time a taluk
headquarters,. He and a brother were probably linked to a major silk business
in Milan, </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">Pasquale De
Vecchj and Co.</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";"> It may be guessed that Kengeri was chosen for its location
between the major silk areas south west and north east of Bangalore city and
its easy contact with the seat of government. The British Chief Commissioner,
Lewin Bowring, and others were supportive, even enthusiastic about sericultural
development. De’Vecchj was given two plots of land, free of the normal rent
assessment for seven years, in order to experiment with the improvement of
sericulture. From there he bought raw silk in some quantity from the Mustan
firm in Channapatna: he addressed Mustan as ‘Silk Commissioner’ and directed
him on one occasion to buy him 20 maunds of ‘first quality at Bazaar price’ for
delivery in Bangalore (Quddus 1923: 20). He set up a steam filature and
introduced Italian and Japanese worms for crossing with 'the native worm', as
well as superior mulberry said to be Chinese, Japanese and Perrottet’s <i>multicaulis</i>.
</span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">The
filature can be considered first since it was relevant only in the early
stages. A building with facilities for rearing and for reeling – probably his
laboratory work as well, and with a mulberry garden nearby – was constructed
and equipped. A Dr H. De'Vecchj, a brother, had joined the enterprise at an
early stage. He ran the steam filature of 80 basins, opening in 1866. 'The
hands employed in this delicate process were female orphans from Bangalore
Convent, under the charge of native nuns' (Rice 1897: 80). The machinery was
subsequently described by Mr Sullivan, whose accounts of village rearing and
reeling machines of the period are quoted elsewhere. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">He
was impressed with the machinery and added two further comments clearly reflecting
perspectives of a British officer of the time. Though the machinery was not
working, and indeed had not been for more than a year by the time he saw it, he
found it ‘so beautifully simple that we had no difficulty in understanding the
mode of working’. He and a Mr Grimes accompanying him ‘were struck by the
facility with which it might be adapted for use in a jail, convict labour being
substituted for steam as a motive power’. He found it, the second comment,
‘curious to observe the similarity of design in these finished appliances to
the crude apparatus use by the native silk-reeler, the difference being that in
one case the design had been worked out to perfection, in the other no attempt
had been made to improve on the crude invention’. ‘There are, doubtless’, he
commented finally, ‘other processes to which the raw material is subjected with
which I am unacquainted, before the beautiful article which Messrs De’Veechj
send into the market is produced.’ (Geoghegan 1872: 99; 1880: 126-7)</span><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="line-height: 150%;">. </span></span><span style="line-height: 150%;">That they needed 16 lbs of
cocoons to produce 1 lb of silk, against the 13 lbs that local reelers might
require, and a machine of enormously greater cost, even if it could be locally
manufactured and operated, and that to realise any additional value the silk
had to travel across continents, all these had been well known to earlier
generations of would-be developers, as has been seen.</span></span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">
</span></span><br />
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; tab-stops: 120.5pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">Already by 1866 De’Veechj had been proceeding to field trials for
his mulberry cultivation, rearing and breeding. He supplied the Commissioner
with cartons</span> <span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">of eggs of the cross-breeds that he had produced. These were to be
put out for hatching and rearing to selected ‘garden holders’ in Closepet and
Hoskote taluks of Bangalore Division. This experiment was tried in July 1866
but was not successful: the explanation offered was that heavy rainfall
retarded hatching. In the monsoon period this was unlucky perhaps but should
hardly have been unexpected. At this time there were only four Districts
producing silk. Bangalore was second only to Mysore in the extent of the
mulberry plantations officially recorded, with 6,150 acres, against 11,013 in
Mysore. Of the other two, Kolar, a major area for the future, then had only
1,215; in Hassan there were 45 acres. </span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">The
following year the same experiment was repeated but on a larger scale and at
two different times, at the end of February / beginning of March and in June,
with eggs distributed mainly to Bangalore Division centres, but one or two also
further south, in all in nine taluks. Reports were obtained from the Amildars
heading each of the taluks. Kengeri itself received 6 cartons, one each for 5
people on the first round, and one on the second. 3 of the first lot did not
hatch, but 2, as well as the single from the second round, did produce 1000 or
so cocoons each. From the second lot, 100 each were sent to the Commissioner,
the Deputy Supervisor and De’Vecchj himself. Subsequently the worms all died,
‘owing, it is surmised, to the unsuitableness of the climate, as well as to
want of proper care’. It was further observed that the worms consumed more food
than the ordinary local worms but that their silk was superior. It did,
however, seem to be of ‘two or three different descriptions’. It looks as if it
was not entirely clear what eggs they were that were being provided. </span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">Closepet,
now Ramnagar, the nearest of the other taluks and a major rearing area,
received a more generous provision, 8 on the first round and 21 on the second,
and put them out in three different hoblis, the divisions of a taluk. One
produced a few worms but no silk, another failed completely ‘though every care
was taken’, and in the third the worms died while spinning. The native worms
had failed at the same time, so there appeared to be ‘some unhealthiness either
in the atmosphere or in the food.’ Of the 40 cartons that went to Hoskote on
the other side of Bangalore, none hatched and the Amildar sent them back to
De’Vecchj. From Maddur, another of the major sericultural centres beyond
Channapatna on the road to Mysore, there was no mortality but the experiment
was still regarded as a failure because ‘the foreign worms were found to need
twice the quantity of mulberry leaves but the quantity of silk is not greater
nor the quality better’. People did not want these worms because of the extra
cost of feeding them. In Malavalli the first batch produced no worms; from the
second, three-quarters did hatch but the worms died within twenty days ‘either
from fever or some other cause’. Here it was observed that the worms ‘present a
yellowish or dirty white colour and suffered a sort of cutaneous eruption’
(KSA, Agriculture 1837-1912, 1 of 1867-68).</span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">With
such diverse results sharing only failure, the experience was bewildering. The
Secretary to the Commissioner wrote an inconclusive but discouraged letter to
De’Vecchj: ‘whatever the cause it was equally difficult to prescribe a remedy’.
The Divisional Superintendent observed that, after such failures ‘it is
difficult to induce Natives to continue to expend care on the Experiment’. By
now it was May 1868, and De’Vecchj was clinging to hope. The two seasons of the
previous year had been deeply disappointing, but he responded as positively as
possible, drawing attention to success they had had in Kolar (KSA, Agriculture
1837-1912, 1 of 1867-68) of which, he complained, no notice had been taken.
This being apparently a District new, fresh and separate from areas of previous
experiment, beyond Hoskote in the north east, it is possible that the pebrine,
if such there was - De'Vecchj was by now identifying it as 'atrophy' – had not
previously reached it. 'Atrophy', according to Zanier, is the Italian name for
pebrine and it is entirely possible that the Italian eggs that had been
imported and distributed, crossed or otherwise, in Bangalore District in 1866,
had brought it with them. It was of course far too early for Pasteur’s
procedure for securing disease-free layings to be being used at Kengeri: even
the basis for it had been discovered only the previous year in France and was
to be developed and published only in 1870.</span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">The
hope was now to follow the course that Europe had been adopting to retrieve its
own industry: to import eggs from countries thought to be free of pebrine,
particularly Japan, and to use the foreign eggs exclusively for rearing, avoiding
cross-breeeding. In the same year, 1868, the De’Vecchjs also established a
‘Madras and Mysore Silk Company’ near Madras city. In August a trip to Japan
was announced, with the offer of bringing back 250 cartons. The cost would be
Rs 4,000. Support for a further attempt had been mobilised, with encouraging
letters obtained from Closepet, Channapatna, Malavalli and Maddur, also Anekal,
a taluk east of Bangalore not previously recorded in connection with the
experiments. These were signed with large numbers of names – up to 163 from
Closepet – and English translations were made. Some referred back to the heroic
days of Tipu Sultan and his introduction of silkworms from abroad. The
Commissioner was still favourable enough to the scheme to advance Rs 2,000,
half the cost quoted, the rest to be paid on arrival of the eggs. </span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">By
late October, a De’Vecchj was back ‘by steamer’ in Madras with his eggs and was
planning the distribution. There should be 30 cartons each for Kengeri,
Closepet, Channapatna, Kankanhalli (Kanakapura), Mallavalli, Magadi and
Nelamangala; 10 each for Anekal, Surjapur, Hoskote, and Doddballapur; 20 for
Yellahanka, 40 for Devanahalli, and 45 for Maddur. De’Vecchj himself would get
25 cartons, probably out of Kengeri’s 30. The Nandidroog Superintendent,
probably J.M. Pearle, responded that Closepet would have been a better place
than Devanahalli, the birthplace of Tipu Sultan, to be given the extra. There
was also argument about the number De’Vecchj was getting and about paying for
them, but the Superintendent was on his side. (KSA, Agriculture 1837-1912, 1 of
1868) The distribution of late 1868 was carried out, an Acting Deputy
Superintendent himself taking them around to some of the taluks. Many of the
eggs did not hatch and remained ‘on the papers’, presumably those on which they
had been layed. Worms that did hatch died. The Superintendent considered that,
when the disease had abated, they should try again to support ‘this branch of
industry – which is the source of emolument and a source of occupation for a
large proportion of our Mahomedan population’ (KSA, Agriculture 1837-1912, 1 of
1869/70).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">On
July 1st, 1869 the Superintendent wrote to the Secretary to the Chief
Commissioner. He was sending a report, received from the Secretary of State and
the Government of India, that had appeared in the <i>Proceedings of the Silk
Supply Association</i> in London, on the events in Mysore. It referred to ‘the
culture of silk in Mysore prior to the time when the disease appeared which has
within the last two or three years caused such unprecedented mortality among
the worms.’ He had also himself been investigating the history of the industry.
He was happy to report that he had had <span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">‘</span></span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">the
opportunity of conversing within the last few days with some very respectable
Mahomedan Gentlemen who hold extensive mulberry plantations and who, I was very
glad to find, spoke hopefully of the future, though they said that the worm
disease had brought ruin to many Mahomedan dwellings’. The gentlemen also said
that ‘25-35 years ago the worms died in just the same way for a period of two
years. It gradually decreased in virulence till it disappeared completely’.
With this knowledge behind them, they were therefore holding on to their
mulberry plantations. His view was that, ‘with the exception of those two years
the culture seemed to have been steadily extending but scarcely improving until
1865’. </span></div>
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">A more pessimistic view was also
frequently elaborated, that the worms had degenerated, reeling and silk had
deteriorated, and perhaps even the mulberry too. It was forcibly expressed by a
visitor to Kengeri in 1869, a Mr Fletwell, deputed by the Government of the
Bombay Presidency to seek a supply of eggs from D’Vecchj for a new sericultural
experiment at Khandesh. Everything was at a standstill at Kengeri when he
arrived. This was on account of ‘the </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">complete and thorough deterioration of the
breed of worms throughout Mysore (both native and imported species).’ He was
convinced that ‘the insect has, in fact, exhausted its vital energy and dies
off just when the spinning process ought to commence.’ He was also sharply
critical, writing that ‘to have commenced an experiment from such a breed’ – as
had been done – ‘would, in my opinion, have been highly injudicious’. ‘The
inevitable failure of the crop probably would have been attributed to </span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">some defect of the climate, or to a
carelessness in the manipulation of the insects, instead of to the actual cause
– i.e. the want of vitality in the worms themselves.’ They were, he considered,
being over-exploited by the Mysore system of multiple cropping: ‘nowhere else
in the world are so many consecutive crops of silk produced in one season as in
the silk districts of Mysore.’ </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">The
situation was bad but as yet not quite as universally so. Fletwell travelled
south from Kengeri through silk areas and did see reeling in operation at
Closepet, Channapatna, Maddur and Mysore, but he was also told that merchants
came from Dharwar and Belgaum and bought the silk at as little as Rs.4 per seer
of 26 Rupees weight, whereas the best silk might sell for Rs.14. (Geoghegan
1880: 124-6) </span></div>
<div class="MsoEndnoteText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">Despite
the apparent inability of such ‘degeneration’ views to explain much of what had
actually occurred, including the repeated and extensive failure of expensive
imported worms to hatch at all, there were undoubtedly underlying issues that
certainly needed to be addressed, particularly over the proper maintenance of
races of worms, but also of the mulberry. </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";">The
promise seen in De’Vecchj’s arrival by many and his attempt to ‘improve native
worms and introduce foreign mulberry’ was grounded in such ideas. </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">One
way or another, the widely-felt need for something new overwhelmed, for some
influential people at least, the repeated experience of failure. Now, it led to
still one more attempt. </span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">The
situation seemed desperate: hardly any cocoons for the seed needed to keep the
industry running were being successfully produced. The Government bought up and
distributed what little was available, and to many there seemed to be no
alternative to further importation just to keep sericulture alive. The De’Vecchjs,
admitting that the last attempt had been ‘a complete failure’, were planning
carefully: it seems they were trying to control for various factors. They would
obtain Chinese as well as Japanese cartons, not less than 500, and these would
be distributed in two different seasons and ‘principally in the District [sic]
which were not at all invaded by the worm’s disease / Atropia / such as
Malavalli’. It would be carefully selected ryots who would receive the cartons
in the presence of Amildars, the local authority, ‘with a view only to control
the number of cartoons distributed’. Rearing would be attended by De’Vecchj
himself. As far as paying for the eggs was concerned, only in the case of ‘a
moderate average success’ would Government be asked to pay, at Rs 18 per
carton, the same price as the preceding year, making Rs 9,000 for all. He would
pay all expenses otherwise. (KSA, Agriculture 1837-1912, 2 of 1869) </span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">Government
agreed to go ahead, and De’Vecchj announced the arrival of cartons on 25th
January 1870. There were 500, but in the event they were all Japanese. Probably
it had proved too difficult to arrange for Chinese in the time available. There
were already other significant modifications to the original plan. The role of
the Amildars had been questioned and the suggestion made that De’Vecchj himself
should ‘appoint’ the recipients. He wanted Amildars ‘of silk manufacturing
taluks to depute trustworthy ryots to Kengeri to receive the silkworm eggs’.
What exactly happened is not clear. By the end of March, De’Vecchj was
reporting that he had distributed ‘upwards of 400 cartons’, each ‘said to
contain 35,000 eggs, out of which about 20,000 have been successful’.(KSA,
Agriculture 1837-1912, 2 of 1869) He was perhaps laying a foundation from which
to claim that results had shown a ‘good average success’. </span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">At
the same time Dr H. De’Vecchj, who had been in charge of the ‘factory’ in the
early stages, completed an elegantly handwritten <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Manual <span style="mso-bidi-font-style: italic;">for Sericulture in
Mysore</span></i>, of about 3,250 words in length and dated 26th March, 1870.
It focuses on the rearing of Japanese worms and begins by recognising
acclimatisation as a problem, but it represent it as one for the ‘cultivators’
in their village homes to deal with. The Superintendent commented that ‘it
would appear to be advisable to have it translated into Canarese [Kannada] and
have it printed in both English and Canarese’. Another suggestion was that it
should appear as a supplement to the <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">Government
Gazette</i>, but there is no evidence that copies of the Manual went anywhere
beyond the Secretariat files. </span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">For
the final stages, a Colonel Meade, who would in 1870 take over from Lewin
Bowring as Chief Commissioner of Mysore and Coorg, was present and already
taking an interest. He reported to the Madras Board of Revenue that the eggs
were distributed in Bangalore, Tumkur and Kolar Districts. (This may well have
been again extending, probably dangerously, the areas covered.) He continued,
beginning with that year: </span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">‘The first results were favourable, and
the demand for eggs was very large; but the worms did not seem to thrive in the
second generation, and the foreign species became extinct. </span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 36.0pt; margin-right: 0cm; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">Again in February 1871, 500 Japanese
cartons were distributed gratuitously, but proved a complete failure. In the
Bangalore and Kolar Districts a small number only of the eggs were hatched, and
even in these cases the worms died within a few days. The symptoms preceding
death appear to have been similar everywhere: the worms assumed a reddish
colour, their heads became enlarged, and a greenish fluid exuded from the
mouth.’ </span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">In
Tumkur the ryots were already ‘disheartened by former failures’ and seem not to
have co-operated; in Mysore, added to the list this time, eggs were reported as
having failed ‘owing to climatic causes’. (Geoghegan 1872: 96-7; 1880: 127).</span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">Colonel
Meade was ‘disposed to attribute’ at least these last failures to a lack of
acclimatisation to the climate of Mysore. He is likely to have seen the notice
on the topic attached to the beginning of the <i>Manual</i>., but the thinking
there does not extend to any responsibility of the importer to attend to the
matter. The thinking amongst sericulturists on climatic matters, often invoked
as explanations of particular failures, had usually been in terms of seasonal
changes and of excessive rain or heat. Any need for acclimatisation as such
seems to have been ignored, possibly not appreciated but in this case more
likely obscured by the pressing need for action. There was still the
consideration that ‘a large proportion of the Mohamedan population depend on
the silk trade for their livelihoods’, meaning the trade in silk as well as the
ownership of mulberry gardens and the practice of sericulture, reeling and
twisting. The cartons of eggs were, Meade wrote, brought ‘direct from Japan,
without undergoing any preparation for so marked a change’. Government should
not continue with Japanese worms. Sericulture had nevertheless clearly engaged
his enthusism too. He suggested yet another one-more-try. The Chinese species
of worm had ‘successfully established itself’ and had been reared in Mysore for
many years, though now ‘deteriorated by close breeding’. ‘It is possible’ he
writes, that the cause of the sickness and mortality to which it is now
subject, and which threatens to extinguish the industry, may be removed by
importing fresh seed from the south of China, the climate of which approaches
more nearly than Japan to that of this plateau’. (Geoghegan 1880: 127).<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">If
there was one lesson to be learnt from the terrible persistence of these years
– what Meade terms the De’Vecchjs’ ‘persevering efforts and the liberal aid of
the Mysore state’ – its outcome was that disease control was bound to become a
major part of silkworm rearing, and therefore of any attempts at sericultural
development. In their susceptibility to various pathogens, interacting with
environmental conditions and nutrition, controlling disease would remain a
challenge in India for the foreseeable future. As has been seen, disaster could
appear in many guises, and almost invariably there was scope for even the
knowledgeable to attribute different causes to what had happened. Even Louis
Pasteur was at first bemused by inexplicable experimental results in his
research on pebrine. He took time to realise, even in the controlled conditions
of his laboratory, that he had more than just pebrine microbes amongst the
specimens on which he was working. Amongst Mysore rearers, the opinion reported
was that it was the De’Vecchj experiments themselves - rather than any
particular disease or event - that had provoked the almost universal
catastrophe was not wrong. The De’Vecchjs had left the country by August 1870
and it was not possible to question them further on the disaster they had so
sadly provoked. As has been seen, there was much room for misunderstanding and
confusion amongst even experienced and knowledgeable sericulturists as late as
the nineteenth century. (Jameson 1922)</span></div>
<div class="MsoPlainText" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family: "MS Mincho";">Madras
Presidency and Mysore in the aftermath</span></b></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;"><span style="line-height: 150%;">The
input of the de'Vecchjs into south Indian sericulture was not entirely over
when they left Mysore. Their persuasive powers had been brought into play in
Madras when, at the height of their troubles in 1869 and in conjunction with a
certain Pater, they had approached the Madras Government to supply them also
with imported seed. ‘Rs 10,000 ‘if the eggs germinated successfully’. The
trials should be started in Kollegal and Hosur taluks, the only two areas of
the Presidency with substantial sericulture, and they should also consider
Tinnevelly in the far south. From the Board’s own enquiries of Collectors it
seemed that sericulture had been tried at one time or another in most
districts, but had died out in all but these and, in a small way, in Kadapa,
North Arcot and South Kanara. The Board decided to recommend the offer to
Government, but they put off deciding until the end of the financial year in
March 1871. (Geoghegan 1880: 73-74)</span></span></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><br clear="all" /></span>
<br />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<h2>
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a>
<span style="font-size: x-small;">Pasteur had been preceded in his work on silkworm diseases by Agostino Bassi
(1773-1856). He was an Italian entomologist who had identified and researched
muscardine which was thought to have appeared in Italy around 1805.
Recommendations for its prevention were provided in his <i>Del mal del segno</i>.
(1835; English trans. Bassi 1958)</span></h2>
</div>
</div>
</div>
Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-11881109070604195922013-02-13T03:28:00.001-08:002013-02-13T03:33:18.657-08:00Tipu Sultan and sericulture for Mysore <!--[if gte mso 9]><xml>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">In
the kingdom of Mysore on the Deccan plateau of South India it was the ruler,
Tipu Sultan, who sponsored and organised sericultural development, possibly
following initiatives of his father, Hyder Ali. On the eastern side of the
peninsula, in Madras, the initiative came from an individual enthusiast, Dr
James Anderson, in the English East India Company’s medical service. The
Company’s Madras Government, its Board of Directors and officers in London were
soon involved and intermittently supportive. The Mysore and Madras initiatives
were separate and almost entirely independent. In the period from 1780 to the
end of the century, four Anglo-Mysore wars continued a series of cruel hostilities
which had started in the first half of the century, primarily between the
French and the British, with their varying allies. With sericulture being
attempted first on the Mysore side and then on the British, in Madras, there
was perhaps rivalry but certainly no scope for co-operation in sericulture or
anything else. The wars involved widespread destruction in both Mysore and
Madras. There was an assault on Bangalore, its capture and year-long occupation
by the British, and three attacks on Tipu's capital, Srirangapatna which was
also the seat of his sericultural experimentation. The last assault, in 1799,
ended in its and Tipu's destruction. The wars had resulted first in the ceding
of half his kingdom to the British and their Indian allies, and finally to the
effective elimination of Mysore as an independent power. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: -.35pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Well
before this final defeat, some slight evidence for the progress of the Mysore
sericultural project had begun to emerge in Madras from Anderson’s own project
and the connections and enquiries it produced. After the fall of Srirangapatna,
records of Tipu’s government fell into British hands and were sent to Calcutta
(Wilks 1810: xvii), though this failed to save most for posterity, while his
extensive libraries were from the beginning more widely scattered. The extent
to which his sericulture project itself was officially documented at the time
is unknown, but miscellaneous sources throw some limited light on it and its
progress.<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span> </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: -.35pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">A
story of Tipu’s first involvement, with interesting pointers at least, comes
from Abdul Quddus, a leading enthusiast of the early twentieth-century silk
trade. His family’s history went back to the beginning of the 19<sup>th</sup> century
and before. Their account of sericulture’s beginning starts with a Chinese
ambassador at Tipu's court presenting him with a silk cloth. This was, it is claimed,
quite new to Mysore<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span></span></span></a>
and to have had the result of resolving Tipu to introduce its production into
his kingdom. He therefore sent off two deputations, one to Bengal, from which
it returned four years later, the other to China which took twelve years to
return. Both yielded cuttings of mulberry and these were sent to 'Dhungur',
probably Dhanaguru, a village 12 kilometres east of Malavalli town, and to
Kunigal, now in Tumkur District. Bengal also yielded silkworm eggs and the
cocoons produced went to Srirangapatna, or more exactly perhaps to Tipu's
nearby industrial village of Ganjam, for reeling and then for weaving (Quddus
1923: 6). He clearly had some success with such plans, though as evidence, this
story with its absence of dating is inevitably open to doubts at several points.
</span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: -.35pt; margin-top: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">It is filled out to
some limited extent, however, by more definite evidence from fragments of
Tipu’s own government records in the form of letters obtained by the British
after the fall of Srirangapatna. Of these, about 35 boxes were carried away,
amounting to some 2,000 items sent via Fort St. George in Madras to Calcutta.
Amongst them, three relating to sericulture were identified and translated soon
afterwards. The earliest, numbered CCLVIII was addressed “To Meer Kâzim, Dâroga
at Muscat, 24th April1786.” This had instructions for several transactions,
including to </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">“Get the Dullâl [broker] to
write to his agents in different places, to collect silkworms, and persons
acquainted with the manner of rearing them, and [having procured them] let them
be despatched to us.<sup>(5)”<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span></sup></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The English footnote entered here states that </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">“The instructions of the <u>Sultan</u> to the
Meer-Asofs or revenue department (issued 1793) contain particular regulations
respecting the culture of the silkworm.”</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm; margin-right: -.35pt; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>It was followed up by a letter numbered
CCLXXII [272], of 6 May following, repeating requests for the silkworms,
amongst other things. The third and most substantial letter, numbered CCCLXXV
[375], was addressed “To Syed Mahommed, Kileadâr<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[2]</span></span></span></span></a>
of Seringapatam”, and dated nearly five months later, 27 September 1786. It
read: </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">“Buhâûddeen a</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";">nd Kustoory Runga, who were sent
[some time since] to <u>Bengal</u>, for the purpose of procuring silkworms, are
now on their return [to Seringapatam], by way of Sedhout. On their arrival, you
must ascertain from them the proper situation in which to keep the aforesaid
worms, and provide accordingly. You must, moreover, supply for their food
[leaves of] the wood or wild mulberry trees, which were formerly ordered to be
planted [for this purpose]. The number of silkworms brought from Bengal must
likewise be distinctly reported to us. We desire, also, to know, in what kind
of place it is recommended to keep them, and what means are to be pursued for
multiplying them.” </span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";">It continued:</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";">”There is a vacant spot of ground
behind the old palace, lately used as a Tosheh-khâneh,or store-house, which was
purchased some time ago with a view to building upon it. Prepare a place
somewhere near that situation, for the [temporary] reception of the worms.”</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";"></span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: 150%; margin-bottom: .0001pt; margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";"><span style="mso-tab-count: 8;"> </span>(Kirkpatrick
1811: 418-19)</span><b style="mso-bidi-font-weight: normal;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 12.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> </span></b><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 150%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-fareast-font-family: "Arial Unicode MS";"></span>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">These letters show therefore that in 1786, in a period
when Tipu was at war with both his powerful northern neighbours, the Marathas
and the Nizam’s Hyderabad, between the Second and Third Anglo-Mysore Wars, and
when Anderson was starting his major campaign for the introduction of cochineal
production in Madras, ahead of his silk project, Tipu was already seeking
silkworms, mulberry and expertise from Muscat, the ancient port and link in the
long-distance east-west trade on the Arabian coast of the Gulf of Oman, and also
from Bengal. The September letter, with its directions to the Governor of the
Fort at Srirangapatna for receiving the worms, suggests that this was still
very near the beginning of his campaign to start sericulture there. Hardly any
knowledge of silkworms or sericulture was yet available and few plans yet made.
The precious footnote (5), its information drawn presumably from the end of the
period of the letters, and<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>perhaps from
letters which were not included in Kirkpatrick’s translated and published
selection, then shows that, whatever the success or lack of it from the
initiatives of the ‘80s, by 1793 a new initiative was under way. It shows also
that it was the Revenue Department that was now in charge of it. </span></div>
<div class="MsoNormal" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt; margin-left: 0cm; margin-right: -.35pt; margin-top: 0cm; tab-stops: 411.1pt;">
<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">As
was standard practice for Tipu’s government, detailed regulations for that
essential department had been made and an elaborate set of those of 1793 were
amongst the documents to which Kirkpatrick’s requested procedure of translation
and publication was applied. The <i>Mysorean Revenue Regulations</i> of 1793</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[3]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> throw at least an indirect light on the context and
methods of the government in relation to development at the time. The
manuscript of these regulations was ‘procured’ in the course of the Coimbatore
campaign by a Colonel in the British army, John Murray. It was in Persian and
‘under the seal of Tippoo Sultaun’. In June 1792 it was lent to the British
authorities for translation into English and printing. A copy from this
printing then ended up as a spectacular quarto volume in the library of King
George III in London, beautifully bound in red leather with elaborate gold
tooling.</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn4" name="_ftnref4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[4]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> What the document shows is, amongst other things, the
vigorous policy for the development of the economy of his countryside and
kingdom that Tipu was pursuing at the period. Tax concessions for the
encouragement of planting and production of numerous crops were proclaimed:
e.g. for sandalwood, tamarind and <i>sikakaubee</i> (<i>mimosa asperata</i>)
used for washing the hair and body, for beetle leaf and ‘beetle nut tree
plantations’ (Articles 24-26). For this last, no tax would be due for 5 years,
to be followed by a half rate from the 6th year until they bore fruit. Then
they would pay full rate or a share of the produce ‘whatever is the custom’.</span><a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn5" name="_ftnref5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Calibri","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[5]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"> The 29th Article concerns the conduct of a census
detailing the houses and resources of the ‘<i>ryuts</i> throughout districts,
and aggregated systematically’. Instructions for carrying it out follow: </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">“To obviate the ill consequence of apprehension being
excited in the minds of the Ryuts, it will be proper, when you commence the
numeration of the houses and inhabitants, to give it out that the purpose for
which you are come to their houses is to see whose expenses exceed their means,
and to assist such persons with Tuccavie<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn6" name="_ftnref6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[6]</span></span></span></span></a>:
in this manner you are to get the numeration effected.”</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">There is no evidence here that by this date any such
methods had been extended to mulberry planting or to sericulture itself, but in
Bengal, the Company’s efforts to extend production with incentives have already
been noted. There is no evidence that they were not used by Tipu also.
Sericulture itself in its early stages is bound to have been highly localised
and may well not have yet been tried in the district to which the surviving
regulations belong. There is, however, as mentioned above, some passing
evidence from the publications of the Scottish enthusiast in Madras, Dr James
Anderson, which supports the achievement of sericulture at the earlier period.
One Robert Andrews, the British officer in charge at Trichinopoly, reported
meeting two men from 'Warriore' in Trichinopoly (Tiruchirappalli) in 1791, who
told him that they had been sent to Mysore under Hyder Ali’s regime and had
been employed there in silkworm rearing at Srirangapatna They apparently
returned home after the 2nd Anglo-Mysore War ended in 1784 (Andrews [1791(c):
70 & foll.]). Since Hyder died in the December of 1783, this suggests that
rearing at Srirangapatna must have begun before that date. Andrews seized the
opportunity to set them to work at rearing and was impressed to find them
constructing and using chandrikes. He reported: </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">“Without any instruction from me, they have formed a frame for the worms
to spin on, which answers perfectly well. It is made as follows: they prepare a
split Bamboo Matt about five feet square upon which they place edgeways, a
fillet of split Bamboo about four inches in width as thus [a small sketch
apparently drawn in by hand]. This is of several yards long and is placed on
the Matt thus [again drawn in]. The worms work in the open squares and form
their cocoons in those spaces’ (Anderson [1791(a): 3]).<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn7" name="_ftnref7" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn7;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[7]</span></span></span></span></a></span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Anderson
commented that this was proof that Tipu had the Bengal 'Chunderkee', which was
not surprising since his information was that he had had three hundred people
there from Bengal 'seven years ago', i.e. in about 1784. It was Bengalis
apparently who took care of the reeling at Srirangapatna. The Warriore men did
not know about it since, they said, Tipu had brought people from Bengal to
perform that part of the enterprise (Anderson [1791: 70; 1791(a): 5-6]). Later
Andrews acquired a third worker who claimed he had himself been sent to Bengal
by Tipu to perfect his knowledge of reeling. Progress is also suggested by the
claim in the same year, 1791, that silk cloth, understood as being from Mysore
raw silk, was being supplied from Srirangapatna. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The war of
1789-92, with heavy destruction along the route taken by the army to reach
Srirangapatna, and Cornwallis' assaults on it, cannot have helped, but
immediately after it, in 1793, we find provision for an expanded silk industry.
Kirkpatrick (1811: 419) writes that it was: </span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">“a
very favourite, though, I believe, an unsuccessful pursuit with the Sultan; who
actually established, or proposed to establish, no less than twenty-one
principal stations within his dominions, where the breeding of the silkworm was
directed to be attended to with the utmost care and diligence. These stations
were specified in one of the sections of the instructions issued to the Meer
Asof, or revenue department, in the year 1794.”</span><span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;"></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">From
the sparse evidence so far assembled, it looks therefore as if there were two
phases, separated by war. A first in the mid 1780s, was probably chiefly at
Srirangapatna. This is not, climatically, amongst the areas of Mysore which
would subsequently be found so suitable for silkworm rearing. It depended
largely on Bengalis and, occasionally perhaps, people sent for training to Bengal,
as well as a few others with experience of silk like the weavers brought in
from Wariur. The second phase, in the 1790s, and probably aware of Anderson’s
initiative in Madras and lessons being learnt there, made an attempt to expand
across a range of localities with government silk farms. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">The
main basis of the silkworm ultimately established in Mysore is likely to have
been a yellow bivoltine race, of Chinese origin but obtained from Bengal.
Losing its hibernating character in south Indian climatic conditions, and
perhaps by some happy genetic mixing over this difficult initial period, it
diverged from races known elsewhere. Adapting and breeding true, it became,
through various vicissitudes which will be investigated at later stages of the
story, the 'Pure Mysore Race' of the twentieth century. It is perhaps
significant that Kunigal and surrounding areas, said in Quddus’ origin story
above, to have been one of Tipu's first two centres, subsequently became known
as the prime source of reliable stock for breeding silkworms as well as
production of cocoons. The worms may well have survived in Mysore, that is to
say, in the short run and in occasional fortunate and climatically favourable
places.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB;">Despite
the Third and Fourth Anglo-Mysore Wars which came, with considerable
destruction, to sieges of Srirangapatna itself, plans for more organised and
widely distributed centres for government-regulated silkworm breeding and
rearing were clearly attempted. It is only too likely that imported worms would
rarely have survived breeding through any considerable number of generations.
As can be seen from experience in Madras at much the same time, and from
generations of effort for sericultural development in southern India, and in
Bengal, loss of worms and uprooting of mulberry from time to time have been
only too common. What was doubtless a catastrophe for sericulture as for so
much else in Mysore in 1799, did not mean the total loss everywhere of mulberry
and silkworms, and rudiments of experience that had been acquired. From them in
the early nineteenth century a more than viable industry would again struggle
forward. </span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div class="MsoNormal">
<br /></div>
<div style="mso-element: footnote-list;">
<br clear="all" />
<hr align="left" size="1" width="33%" />
<div id="ftn1" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref1" name="_ftn1" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn1;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[1]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">Though
this seems unlikely, his father’s regime was not given to luxury and as a pious
Muslim, Tipu himself may have followed the religious tradition treating the use
of silk and gold for clothing <i style="mso-bidi-font-style: normal;">haram</i>
for men, exceptions <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>being possible for
medical reasons. Worn by men, silk could be regarded as improperly luxurious
display, but it was not prohibited to women. See numerous online discussions and
sources, e.g. (accessed <span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>30.7.2012)<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span><a href="http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20090703064133AAf6pIB">http://answers.yahoo.com/question/index?qid=20090703064133AAf6pIB</a>
</span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn2" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref2" name="_ftn2" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn2;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[2]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">See
Glossary: <i>Killadar</i>: the commandant or governor of a fort or castle (OED)</span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"></span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn3" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref3" name="_ftn3" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn3;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Arial","sans-serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[3]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"> </span><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">This
was for a particular district or region: ‘to be observed by the present and
future Aumils and Serishtadars of the Second District of Aumloor, dependent on
the Cutchery of Awulputum’. A note for Article 22, p. 63, identifies
‘Akraunputtun’ as ‘Agran Puttum’, meaning the ‘Magazines of Seringapatam which
is frequently called Puttun by the natives’. </span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn4" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref4" name="_ftn4" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn4;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[4]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-spacerun: yes;"> </span>Today to be found in the King’s Library
within the British Library in London. </span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn5" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref5" name="_ftn5" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn5;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[5]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
<span style="mso-bidi-font-weight: bold;">The regulations need serious analysis</span>,
at least to establish the articles that were relevant to concessions for
development. As it is, it looks as if it is not securing development but
revenue which is predominant. The other kinds of regulation need to be looked
at too: it was the inhumane ones which undoubtedly made the document’s appeal
for propaganda purposes. Here the purpose for which its evidence is being used
is quite different. </span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn6" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftnref6" name="_ftn6" style="mso-footnote-id: ftn6;" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;"><span style="mso-special-character: footnote;"><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%; mso-ansi-language: EN-US; mso-bidi-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-US;">[6]</span></span></span></span></span></a><span lang="EN-US" style="font-family: "Times New Roman","serif"; font-size: 10.0pt; line-height: 115%;">
See Glossary: taccavi. It may look as if it must have been some kind of
official support for the impoverished, but more likely an ‘advance or loan for
agricultural production’ (Parthasarathi<span style="mso-spacerun: yes;">
</span>2001). </span></div>
</div>
<div id="ftn7" style="mso-element: footnote;">
<div class="MsoFootnoteText" style="margin-bottom: 6.0pt;">
<br /></div>
</div>
</div>
Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com38tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-77769173067262580302010-12-21T03:12:00.000-08:002010-12-21T07:44:19.335-08:00James Anderson of Madras - 3<span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:times new roman;" >Anderson versus the East India Company</span><br /><br /> <span style="font-family:times new roman;">Anderson's relationship with the Governor and the Board of Revenue who represented the Company's interests in Madras, and no doubt their own too, was a significant part of the problems he encountered. Their priorities were different. The Company was concerned first with raising revenue in the form of rents and taxes. If there was a need for investment it had to be in enterprises which would clearly yield a profit to the Company, and in the shortest possible time. Anderson, on the other hand, saw the plight of the people, both as a result of the recent disasters and from a long-term lack of circumstances such as to encourage development. He noted particularly the miserable condition of the lower classes and those who would later be identified as 'untouchables'.<br /><br />He saw an important part of their problems as a shortage of demand for labour over a large part of the year. Encouraging economic activity was therefore his priority, and he wanted to achieve it by making new crops and new enterprises available and by helping people to obtain the resources, land in particular, which they would make productive. </span> <span style="font-family:times new roman;">He did his best to persuade the Company first that putting money into sericultural development would be profitable for it. In doing so he certainly exaggerated the speed with which profit could possibly be achieved: he had perhaps to do so in order to interest the Company at all. But it is also clear with hindsight that, as a pioneer, there was no way he could know either the hazards awaiting him or the timescale appropriate to such a major enterprise. He was probably not the first and certainly not the last would-be promoter of development to find himself in such a predicament.</span> <span style="font-family:times new roman;"><br /><br />It was over the second part of his policy, getting private people into sericulture, that the major clash came. There were two routes he proposed taking. One was to lure ordinary people into sericulture by example and incentive. The example was to be provided by more or less official European plantations which could demonstrate rearing and even reeling. He encouraged them particularly through</span><span style="font-family:times new roman;"> his extensive correspondence and its immediate publication in a succession of small books. The incentives came later when trying to boost the uptake amongst Indians by providing mulberry cuttings, silkworm eggs and necessary equipment, and guaranteeing to buy villagers' output, both of mulberry leaves and cocoons. </span> <span style="font-family:times new roman;"><br /><br />But it was the second route which caused most trouble. This was the provision of land for large-scale sericultural enterprises, either for Europeans, though Company policy at the time was in general against putting land into European hands, or for wealthy Indians. In Anderson's eyes the country was empty; there were huge amounts of land that had been cultivated </span> <span style="font-family:times new roman;">before the 1780 war but that had then dropped out of cultivation, and in addition there was waste land which had never apparently been used at all. He thought - and said repeatedly in a barrage of increasingly heated letters to the Governor and the Board - that surely, when the future prosperity of the country was at stake, land could be found and provided on terms which would encourage people to take it up and get on with planting the extensive areas of mulberry which would be needed. </span> <span style="font-family:times new roman;"><br /><br />The Company, however, was concerned - as always - with revenue, and also with the tangle of existing rights and claims to land. No clear policy had yet been arrived at for sorting out a system of landholding and revenue such as would later be achieved with 'permanent settlements'. There was as yet little understanding of principles and even less of surveys on the ground. The Company agreed with Anderson that the land had to be brought back into cultivation, but it was also worried about the practical difficulties of doing this. A worry was that incentives to take up new land would simply encourage people to abandon their existing lands for new allocsations on which they would have to pay less. There would be a net loss of revenue to government with no net gain in the amount of land farmed. With so much unresolved, there were long delays in dealing with the early applications submitted, and the terms that were finally offered were not encouraging. </span> <span style="font-family:times new roman;"><br /><br />Anderson raged at the officials, portraying them in his numerous letters as bureaucratic nigglers and wasters who did not have the interests of the country at heart. Since he had developed powerful backing from the Directors of the Company in London, they put up with this patiently - in contrast to an earlier occasion when he had been told bluntly to mind his own business and stick to his medical responsibilities. They even did their best to oblige him. At the same time however, having ceased to reply to his letters over several months, the Board of Revenue wrote </span><span style="font-family:times new roman;">to the Governor </span><span style="font-family:times new roman;">complaining of his behaviour. They took the opportunity at the same time to express serious doubts about his sericultural schemes in general. The Governor replied with some sympathy: 'we hope the Doctor will, for the sake of the object he professes to promote, adopt a more conciliating and respectful conduct towards you in future'. The correspondence was copied to Anderson, who promptly responded, on 22 February 1794, that he had therefore to 'decline any further interference'; he would, that is to say, pull out of the enterprise, including, as it soon turned out, the supervision of the farm at Vellout that </span><span style="font-family:times new roman;">Parkison was managing</span><span style="font-family:times new roman;">. </span> <span style="font-family:times new roman;"><br /><br />After a delay of a few months however, he could not keep away altogether from sericulture. He continued to rear worms in Madras for some time, but the impetus behind official involvement with sericultural promotion that he had provided was at an end. It took a little time for the Company's projects to be liquidated but, by the time of the last Mysore War in 1799 which put an end to Tipu's sericultural initiatives, the Company had also abandoned sericultural development. </span> <span style="font-family:times new roman;"><br /><br />In the event, neither in the Company's territory nor in Mysore was this the end of sericulture. It survived surprisingly in a few remote spots, but evidence now emerging suggests that there were two more major sources of continuity. From an early stage Anderson had been interested in encouraging Indian princes to concern themselves with sericulture. The Nawab of Arcot, the major Indian ruler in the region, himself always </span><span style="font-family:times new roman;">had</span><span style="font-family:times new roman;"> perhaps too many more urgent concerns; at any rate he did not pursue it. Two of his sons who held court at Trichinopoly were, however, interested and so, more importantly, was his brother, Abdul Wahab Khan, at Chittoor. He established a plantation and sent people to learn reeling in Madras. In Chittoor, as today, it was possible to breed much more securely; on the coast it turned out to be increasingly difficult even to maintain silkworm stock through the monsoon season. It was largely owing to eggs from Chittoor that it was possible to revive rearing on the coast after disastrous attempts at it in both 1795 and 1796. When the Company closed the Vellout farm it was to Chittoor that some of the staff went for work. No evidence has yet emerged for events there over the next generation, but it is tempting at least to suspect here some connection with the presence there, in the early 1840s, of a substantial sericultural establishment run by a remarkable Christian missionary, Anthony Norris Groves, 'Father of Faith Missions'. This was briefly to play a significant part in the re-establishment of sericulture in the South. </span> <span style="font-family:times new roman;"><br /><br />The other tempting focus of interest is the Baramahal, the area ceded by Mysore to the Company in 1792 which is now mostly Dharmapuri and Salem Districts of Tamil Nadu. This was new territory and the Company's own. Capt. Alexander Read, with the assistance of Thomas Munro and others, was sent to take charge of it. Their first responsibility was to work out how revenue was to be raised from its land; it was here indeed that the <span style="font-style: italic;">ryotwari</span> system of land revenue subsequently applied across large areas of India was first worked out. But they were also, in conjunction with this, concerned, like Anderson, with the economic development of the country. They investigated crops which might be profitably grown and transported, and amongst these was silk. Another assistant, Eyre W. Lyte, a former planter in the West Indies, was responsible for this and he had the assistance of Mohamed Arif, the Bengali who had set up Anderson's filature in Madras and had worked with him for five years. In 1795/6, again with direct support from Anderson, they established a 54-acre plantation and started rearing and reeling at Tirupattur, today in the south of Vellore District. This was an enterprise opening up inland at just the time when, on the coast, the decision to close down was being taken. As at Chittoor, there is then an unfortunate gap in the record which waits to be filled, but it is at least suggestive that it was not too far away, in Denkanikota of Dharmipuri District where sericulture was reported in the 1830s as already established. Whether this was a relic either of Tipu's Mysore schemes or Anderson's from Madras remains to be established.<br /><br /></span><span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;font-family:times new roman;" >Conclusion</span> <span style="font-family:times new roman;"><br /><br />Despite all the best efforts and ingenuity of both </span><span style="font-family:times new roman;">Anderson</span><span style="font-family:times new roman;"> and Parkison, the Company abandoned its silk projects and closed their plantation in September 1798. But even if, contrary to all Anderson's optimism, silk could not to be produced on the Coromandel Coast of Madras, it was here as well as in Mysore that practical and financial issues of sericultural development in the South were experimented with, struggled over and conclusive results achieved. </span> <span style="font-family:times new roman;"><br /><br />Anderson died in Madras in 1809. Doubtless he was disappointed in the failure of the Company's schemes but perhaps he died with the knowledge of Indian sericultural enterprise continuing. He wrote to Parkison in 1796, of new initiatives, that there would be 'time enough after the management of the worms is in the hands of the country people'. His many successors in sericultural development have indeed taken him up on this. </span>Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-84837092303967644352010-12-01T22:55:00.000-08:002010-12-01T23:32:16.343-08:00The Bangalore Silk Farm<span style="font-weight: bold;">Part 2</span><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Development and the Salvation Army</span><br /><br />In January 1910 the Tata Silk Farm was handed over by Jamsetji’s son, Dorabji, to the Salvation Army and a new era was to begin. The interest of the government had been in improving the industry at its grass roots, but for that purpose the Farm was so far felt to have had little success, perhaps 'owing to the conservatism of the raiyats' as the Government of Mysore, Administration Report 1910/11 politely put it. Nevertheless, it was agreed to continue the original land grant and the Rs 3,000 annual subsidy for another three years.<br /><br />The Salvation Army had grown out of a mission to the poor started in Victorian London by a Methodist evangelist, William Booth in 1865. This was reorganised in 1878 into a ranked and uniformed ‘army’ by Booth and his wife, Catherine. It was in effect a church for the poor and those rejected by respectable Christianity of the time, an ‘army’ organised to support ‘down and outs’, feed and house them, save them from alcohol and immorality, and lead them to a Christian way of life as the organisation understood it. Booth was its first ‘General’, its ministers and leaders were ‘Officers’, and other members were its ‘Soldiers’. All ranks were open to women as well as to men. As Booth described it: ‘The three “S’s” best expressed the way in which the Army administered to the “down and outs”: first, soup; second, soap; and finally, salvation’.<br /><br />The movement spread quickly, to Scotland, Australia, the United States, France and, in 1882, to India, as well as Canada, Sweden and Switzerland. Many other countries were to follow. The Indian branch was started by an ICS officer himself born in India but with the grand Anglo-French name of Frederick St George de Latour Tucker, of the Indian Civil Service. He had joined the Salvation Army as a Major, starting its work in Bombay. As well as evangelism, it set up social agencies of various kinds: for the alleviation of the effects of famine, orphanages, schools, cottage industries and settlements for the Depressed Classes, later Dalits. Medical work began in 1893. The movement was interested in supporting the poor in many societies by giving them employment in paying enterprises which would, together with support from charitable and government grants, finance the extensive operation as a whole. It was such an organisation – part mission, part business – that was asked to take over the Tata Silk Farm.<br /><br />They made a bold beginning and expanded their activities fast and widely. Already in 1912 Commissioner Tucker published a booklet entitled <span style="font-style: italic;">Experiments by the Salvation Army with French, Italian, Mysore and Erie Silk Worms in India and Ceylon, 1910-1911.</span> The Salvation Army management of the Silk Farm had expanded its mulberry plantation, erected new buildings, doubled the size of the original filature and was also reeling in Ramanagaram. They had trained seven of their ‘European Officers’ and students and villagers from around southern India and Bombay in sericulture and allied activities, and they distributed silkworm eggs and mulberry cuttings to places in western and central India which were also at the time becoming again interested in the potential of silk production. They had manufactured ‘a cheap and convenient reeling machine for cottage use’, and the Japanese system of reeling and re-reeling was also the subject of their training. In 1912 it was reported that<br /><blockquote>visitors from various part of India have called, and advice has been sought by numerous correspondents. Already the Tata Silk Farm has given birth to three other institutions of a similar character under our auspices in Ceylon, the United Provinces and the Punjab. </blockquote>The Farm was awarded medals at exhibitions - gold in Bangalore and silver in Madras – for ‘its exhibit of the entire process from the silkworm egg to the woven article’. In all they claimed 10 gold medals, 8 silver and 5 bronze, with numerous certificates. A bale of its silk was shown at the London Silk Exhibition of 1912, where it was said to have ‘attracted great attention from the visitors, who included Their Majesties the King and Queen and other members of the Royal Family.’ (Tucker 1912; Playne 1914/5; Lala 2004: 55-57).<br /><br />There is no doubt that they made an energetic start and ensured that ‘Tata Silk Farm’ would retain a lasting presence in Bangalore, if only as a place name the origins of which would be revealed with generous hyperbole at intervals over the years. They provided livelihoods and opportunities for the poor, neglected and often scorned in India and elsewhere. The original connection of Jamsetji Tata with the silk industry is also certainly of interest, one of the great and philanthropic names who have been associated with it since its ancient origins in China. Lala (2004: 57) writes : ‘In India of today, it is little known that the flourishing silk industry of south India especially was revived by the same man as was to give it iron and steel and hydro-electric power’. But whether either Tata or the Salvation Army discovered a viable way in which the industry could be developed and the poor could be simultaneously advantaged is much more doubtful and the issues that the connection involves are complex.<br /><br />The Farm’s subsequent operation and its significance for the silk industry would be critically – indeed hostilely – assessed in a major report for the Indian industry as a whole by Professor H. Maxwell-Lefroy, entomologist and Imperial Silk Specialist (1916: 104-09). On the Bangalore Farm itself, he comments: ‘in regard to Mysore, … here if anywhere the Salvation Army should be able to make a large profit from the industry’. If with the cheap labour and even cheaper supervision available to it, they could not make the Farm financially profitable – as they were complaining in their latest annual report – ‘no-one can do it commercially’. He saw their silk enterprises as they had developed more widely as achieving nothing of benefit for the industry. On the contrary they were advocating practices often bad in themselves and able to survive only with the support of government subsidies.<br /><br />Such problems would resurface prominently in the latter decades of the twentieth century. Much sooner, Tatas came back into the field, setting up a sericultural school at Closepet, for the 'benefit of boys of the backward classes and Mahomedans, who are made to work as wage earners' (Mysore Administration Report 1914/15). The Tatas’ various contributions to the silk of the South and the colourful part that the Salvaltion Army played deserved at least to be remembered.Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-41482096835907346762010-08-10T03:29:00.000-07:002010-08-10T04:57:38.848-07:00Multicaulis in the mid-19th century<span style="font-style:italic;"><span style="font-weight:bold;"></span></span><br /><br />It was only at the end of the 1830s that Government of Madras became involved in promoting sericulture, and that indirectly. The attention of the East India Company in London had been drawn to a new American book called The silk culturist’s manual. It was by one John d’Homergue, ‘addressed to the farmers and planters of the United States’. During the 1820s an old interest in silk production in the United States which had faded and then almost disappeared in the War of Independence between 1775 and 1783, began again to appeal to ‘many prominent persons’ who ‘recommended its development’. The House of Representatives of the Congress became involved in 1826, directing the Secretary to the Treasury to have a manual prepared on the production and manufacture of silk (Klose 1963: 226). None was, it seems, available: Count Dandolo’s The art of rearing silkworms had appeared, in London in English translation from the original Italian of 1815, only the year before. In any case it was not directed to American conditions. In 1830 the Committee on Agriculture of the American Congress was then set to assess a scheme to make the United States a world leader of raw silk production.<br /> <br />This scheme had been put forward by an unlikely pair of Frenchmen: one had immigrated to America from France in 1777 at the age of 17 with a certain Baron von Steuben and as his ‘military secretary’. This young man was Pierre-Etienne du Ponceau, and the Baron was a Prussian soldier who was to become one of the leading generals in the American ‘Continental Army’, credited with creating a trained and disciplined army to fight under George Washington. After serving in the American War of Independence, Pierre-Etienne became Paul Stephen Duponceau, and in time a renowned jurist, philologist especially of American Indian languages, long-time President of the American Philosophical Society and, towards the end of his life, an enthusiastic exponent of sericulture for America. It was for this that he teamed up with a new arrival from France who was seeking his fortune from silk, the John d’Homergue mentioned above. Between them they were an attention-catching team, and their campaign in 1830/31 to get a national sericultural development programme financed under Act of Congress played an important part in a craze for mulberry cultivation and silkworm rearing that built up through the decade. <br /><br />It was this excitement generated in America, which led the Directors in London to be alerted and then, eventually, to forward the letter they had received from a Lieutenant Colonel Sykes to the Madras Government at Fort St George in 1839. They passed the message on to the Board of Revenue, the Agri-Horticultural Society of Madras and to Surgeon Wight, EIC Surgeon, Naturalist and Botanist in the Madras establishment, with the brief of ‘investigating the natural resources of the country with a view to commercial exploitation’.<br /><br />A key part of the excitement in the United States was the identification of one mulberry variety, morus multicaulis (many-stemmed), the white mulberry that was a native of China. It had appeared as the Philippine mulberry in the 18th century, in the course of exploration to find natural resources from around the world. It was notoriously difficult to distinguish varieties: mulberry’s apparent characteristics, such as leaf structure, were inconstant in different environments and the stocks so mixed by long use without consistent discrimination or breeding. In 1821 however, one George Samuel Perrottet, a distinguished French botanist who had been sent with a ship on a three-year collecting mission to the seas of Asia, returned with multicaulis amongst his collection and named by him. He was said to have found it on the banks of a river in Manilla, the capital of the Philippines in south-east Asia, ‘in the garden of a Chinese cultivator’, ‘growing with a vast variety of other precious plants which had … been collected from India, from Ceylon, from Sumatra and from China’. Perrottet obtained two plants, from which he established multicaulis first on the French Island of Bourbon, now Réunion, in the Indian Ocean, then in Cayenne, now in French Guiana in Central America, and finally in France, starting with the Royal Gardens in Paris. From there it was supplied to French territories and more widely still across the world. <br /><br />In the United States, it first arrived about 1827. It was widely imagined that, at first called ‘Philippine’ or ‘Chinese’ or occasionally ‘Perrottet’s mulberry’, the multicaulis was an almost magical key to successful silk production. A vigorous market in young trees and cuttings built up. In 1834 it was selling for $3-5 a hundred, but within a few years ‘at $25 or even $500 a hundred’. Speculation in large plantations mounted in frenzy, until ‘the cold winter of 1839 killed many of the trees, chilling the enthusiasm and toppling the speculative price structure. Sericulture in America received a serious setback and a reputation it took long to live down’ (Klose 1963: 26-27. <br /><br />The Madras government in 1842 – with the bubble already burst in America and having apparently made no progress with the matter of acquiring this wonderful mulberry still being called ‘Philippine’ here – was reminded that they were supposed to be propagating it. They should now obtain supplies from the Bengal and Bombay Governments. A covering note in circulating this instruction commented that it could be obtained from Pondicherry where there was a silk factory and plantation. The Agri-Horticultural Society replied that they already had the plant growing in their garden, from cuttings presented to them by Mr Groves of Chittoor. They had already distributed several hundred cuttings to ‘enterprising persons on the Nilgiri Hills and in Mysore’, and could with financial support provide 10,000 more in the following April or May. It was doing well and believed likely to do equally well in most parts of the Presidency. The Government then issued a call to all Collectors to submit their requirements: from Salem and Coimbatore, the application was for as many cuttings as possible; in Mysore it was already thriving; from the Telugu Districts of the north, Rajamundry, Nellore, Kadapa and Kurnool responded positively. Kurnool took until the following year to consider the matter but had then decided to try for a government-financed establishment for sericulture and reeling. They were turned down.<br /> <br />Sadly, multicaulis was no more the solution to sericultural success in India than it had been in America. Other problems in plenty lay ahead.Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-49935648436751990662010-05-09T23:26:00.000-07:002013-04-27T08:54:33.687-07:00Pursuit of a bivoltine revolution (5)<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:donotoptimizeforbrowser/> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:"Arial Unicode MS"; panose-1:2 11 6 4 2 2 2 2 2 4; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:swiss; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:-1 -369098753 63 0 4129023 0;} @font-face {font-family:"\@Arial Unicode MS"; panose-1:2 11 6 4 2 2 2 2 2 4; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:swiss; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:-1 -369098753 63 0 4129023 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} </style> <br />
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<b><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">KSP, World Bank and the Japanese connection</span></b></h3>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The World Bank Project had gone ahead. It included numerous measures for the promotion of ‘silk production’, ‘silk processing’ and research and technical assistance. ‘Production’ covered the required infrastructure and financing up to cocoon marketing; ‘processing’ covered reeling and spun-silk production; and ‘research and technical assistance’ was mainly what went on in research institutes. V. Balasubramaniam, IAS, who as Director of Sericulture led the Indian side in setting it up but was posted elsewhere before it really got going, summed the project up from its mid point: <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">While an all-round gearing up of activities of the Department and modernisation has been attempted, the crux of the project lies in the construction of 10 modern grainages, establishing 1,700 chawki rearing centres and 150 Technical Service Centres for extension, strengthening CSRTI, establishing the KSSDI, training of Departmental Officers and CSRTI Scientists up to 380 man-months [in Japan] and Technical Assistance by way of Japanese experts staying in Karnataka up to 70 man-months (Balasubramaniam 1986:10-34). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The main target, he states, was 1,000 tonnes of bivoltine raw silk and 3,300 tonnes of multivoltine silk per annum. The need was therefore urgent for more bivoltine ‘pure races’ to be evolved. These were already needed to replace the aging KA and NB<sub>4</sub>D<sub>2</sub> in the production of multivoltine hybrids, but they were also essential for the bivoltine hybrid rearing for the 1000 tonne target. They would not be identical to the races required in Japan and South Korea; for rearing in usual Indian conditions it was resistance to diseases rather than maximum silk content, which would be needed. It was, he had found, the USSR that had the experience, the research and the motivation to support India in achieving this: their research collaboration in silkworm genetics and rearing should be immediately sought. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Existing government grainages had been totally unable to meet the demand for the layings required even at the previous levels of production. The industry therefore had to depend on private Licensed Seed Preparers (LSPs) but they, despite their licensing, did not produce their layings in a proper scientific manner to maintain quality. The modern grainages to be built under KSP for Department use were therefore ‘pivotal’. They had also to operate on Japanese lines and to be organised accordingly. The existing practice was to secure P-1 seed cocoons from designated seed areas widely separated. To bring the Pure Mysore from Kunigal and the bivoltine from Anekal required extensive travel to bring them together at the grainages producing hybrids. This, on the scale required for the new large-scale government grainages, was certain to entail extensive melting of cocoons in transit. Therefore the existing grainages ‘should now start in a big way to have registered seed growers around the grainage itself. It should take the responsibility of supplying P-1 bivoltine layings and getting back P-1 cocoons’. This was, he wrote, the practice in Japan and ‘the only way by which the grainages under KSP can be made workable …’. More widely, the huge process of seed multiplication from P4 to P1 would be so complex that the Department would need to employ ‘highly qualified personnel’ and get ‘the entire process computerised so that a continuous review and correction [would] be possible’ (Balasubramaniam 1986: 20-21).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">A further stage at which the Japanese model had to be followed was chawki rearing. The newly hatched and young worms would be highly susceptible to the unhygienic conditions of farmers’ houses. To give them a safe start in their development they needed to be raised in chawki rearing centres, ‘scientifically on behalf of the farmers’. In Japan this was done up to the third moult; it had not seemed practical to go beyond the second in India when KSP provisions were being set. There was also a provision for honoraria to be provided for selected progressive farmers to manage the CRCs: ‘It is always better to involve the progressive sericulturists in running the CRCs on the model of “extension farmers” of Japan, rather than depend entirely upon low-paid Government servants who are not from the local village’ (op. cit.: 21-22). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The carefully worked out discussions set out by the chief moving force behind the KSP programme provides an impressive demonstration, briefly exemplified here, of the exercise of forward thinking required to deal with the ‘linkages’ that have always played so crucial a part in silk production. What is only too likely to be missed in the exciting task of working out what is needed is the fragility of systems dependent on the proper occurrence of multiple inter-locked events in sequence: the required events have to happen not in the isolated space of a carefully programmed computer but amongst the uncertainties of a universe of complex interactions between human beings with each other and with the natural environment. Here the folly of trying to polish the rearing practices of Indian farmers to the semi-automated levels of Japanese sericulture is made basic. The risks from these practices and the limited motivation of junior Department staff supposed to improve them were to be countered - as far as possible - through the genetic potential of new races to be evolved in superior research institutes and university departments. These are however inevitably only two of the multiplicity of points at which the programme may slow severely, get corrupted or crash entirely (op. cit.: 15-16).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">One of the first measures to be set up, in November 1980, was an ambitious insurance scheme for all the bivoltine rearing in the State. The premiums would be paid to an insurance company, the United India Insurance Co., by the Government of Karnataka; they would be recovered from a 2% levy from the farmers on the sale of their cocoons. The CSB was expected to subsidise this to the extent of 75% in the first year, reducing to 25% in the third, with the full charge borne by the farmers after that (DoS-K 1985: 16, #41). This proved more difficult in practice than had been anticipated. Three years later the </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Minister for Sericulture, Smt. Chandraprabha Urs, is found announcing that, ‘to eliminate spurious insurance claims, officers of the Sericulture Department were being entrusted with the task of examining the claims and testing the same’ (<i>IS </i>22, 8/9, 1983/4: 21). Not long afterwards, its problems caused the scheme to be abandoned. </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">A paper on the Karnataka silk industry prepared by the Department of Sericulture (DoS-K 1985) for the Economic and Planning Council as the initial five years of the KSP were coming to an end provides an insider perspective on the progress and problems of the industry over this period. The enthusiasm for bivoltine displayed and the confidence in the solution of its problems were now considerably less. Doubt as to the inevitability of a bivoltine future was creeping in. Karnataka’s potential for further irrigation is ‘low’, it is asserted, and in future available irrigation will be needed for ‘food and other cheaper fibre crops’. For silk, rain-fed cultivation of drought-resistant mulberry ‘assumes a tremendous importance’. Hardier and more drought-resistant varieties would be needed for rain-fed conditions, rather than high-yielding varieties for irrigated use. ‘Although the individual farmer will have the choice of choosing the most profitable crop at his level, the maintenance of a proper balance amongst various priorities at the State and National level is the responsibility of all scientists and administrators’ (DoS 1985: 61, #155).<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Not surprisingly, criticism that had been implied in the original Staff Appraisal Report of the Department’s performance in ensuring the production of good and reliable seed for commercial rearing is here deflected. The emphasis is placed on what the Department had long been doing anyway, increasing the production of mulberry silk in general, rather than of bivoltine particularly. It was being achieved by extending irrigated mulberry cultivation in non-traditional areas, in traditional irrigated areas by converting ‘low yielding local varieties of mulberry to high yielding M5 varieties’, and by, in the traditional rainfed areas, improving ‘production practices’ for both mulberry and cocoons. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The mammoth grainages in the plan – ‘10 Model Grainages’ – were already becoming an embarrassment. They are noted first as ‘recently constructed’ but then as ‘yet to go into production’. The buildings were not complete and ‘certain basic equipments’ had not yet been installed (DoS-K 1985: 23 (#63)). The cold storage units so essential for the planned year-round operation and the production of silk of internationally graded quality were, it turned out, amongst what was missing. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">From the beginning, as the Staff Appraisal Report shows, there had been acute attention to the possibility of delays in procurement. Assurances were obtained from the Government on deadlines to try to avoid them. Despite this a major imbroglio had developed over the equipment for large-scale cold storage. This would turn out still to be one of the major preoccupations when the Project Completion Report was finally reached in 1991. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The story was complex and different sources emphasise different aspects and different connections in its development. From the ‘Borrowers’’ side comes the fullest account, actually prepared for the Government of Karnataka by a consultancy firm. The equipment required was large, complicated and non-standard: it ‘had to be able to maintain variable temperature, exact humidity, air and light for preservation of silkworm eggs, silkworm moths and seed cocoons’. Yet it had been assumed that it would be procurable from within India and a ‘local’ call for tenders had accordingly been put out. Bids were received, but none met the specifications: they were rejected by the Government’s technical committee. ‘The Bank experts should have known that this equipment which needed such exacting temperature and humidity controls could not have been produced in India.’ A different and less familiar procedure for international tendering had to be followed instead. The Bank therefore recommended consultants able to draw up the appropriate specifications and they were engaged (WB PCR: 12, #6,7). Time was passing. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The man who was by 1984 in charge of KSP at the World Bank later recalled that, new tenders having appeared from both Japan and Korea, the decision on them had to be taken by the State Cabinet. All the advice they had received had been in favour of accepting a bid from Japan but, for their own good reasons, they chose a Korean offer instead. He therefore told them that the World Bank was backing out unless they back-tracked on the decision. Eventually they did so, but it meant another two years of delay. Japanese machinery did then arrive, but in the meantime the exchange rate had ‘gone through the roof’’ (Chobanian personal communication, Bangalore, 1990</span><span style="font-family: Arial;">): </span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 9pt;">t</span><span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">he value of the Japanese yen had increased by 60% against the Indian Rupee. The equipment that had originally been expected to cost Indian rupees only was now hugely expensive and a new furore broke out. The Indian Government wanted to impose a 90% import duty on the already large sum. As the Borrowers’ section of the Completion Report put it: ‘GoI, at the plea of the Government of Karnataka and the Bank, reduced the duty to 45%.’ It commented that ‘any government commitments such as customs duties’ should have been ‘fixed in a side letter with the participating Government agencies’ (WB PCR: 4, #5.3). Finally the cold stores, ‘the most crucial element to the success of future silk exports‘, were eventually installed in December 1989, after the final closing of the Project. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The decision to make a clean sweep of the mass of miscellaneous older grainages, replacing them with the new and properly equipped ones, never became effective. The revolution in quality seed production that had been boldly planned could not happen. The World Bank’s Completion Report reflected, softening fundamental criticism of the bivoltine programme itself with a padding of tentative caution: ‘In retrospect, the technological package proposed for rapid implementation was somewhat overambitious’; ‘possibly too much emphasis was given to bivoltine silk production, since conditions were not conducive to rapid development’ (WB PCR: 3, #4.1, 3).</span></div>
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Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-67042351134202388872010-04-27T00:52:00.000-07:002010-12-01T23:35:09.813-08:00The Swiss in South Indian sericulture - 2<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQz1Q4h1KIAbM3PV6cCfMvUNYZ0ybHPTluCXs0ITsK0FhEcpcbTQRcXZqqD18PcyXm3n6tp_PdJjN973dlQmtXRvPC7OqhnDARQT_7Fj4I-19i2gS36ogpa1PJ1P3DGTsvmGdcMACEX4DE/s1600/IS-1988-Cong-DSC00228-(2).jpg"><img style="float: left; margin: 0pt 10px 10px 0pt; cursor: pointer; width: 244px; height: 320px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQz1Q4h1KIAbM3PV6cCfMvUNYZ0ybHPTluCXs0ITsK0FhEcpcbTQRcXZqqD18PcyXm3n6tp_PdJjN973dlQmtXRvPC7OqhnDARQT_7Fj4I-19i2gS36ogpa1PJ1P3DGTsvmGdcMACEX4DE/s320/IS-1988-Cong-DSC00228-(2).jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5464924936515682594" border="0" /></a><br /><!--[if gte mso 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l6:level1 lfo104 {mso-level-start-at:2;} @list l6:level1 lfo105 {mso-level-start-at:3;} @list l6:level1 lfo106 {mso-level-start-at:4;} @list l6:level1 lfo107 {mso-level-start-at:5;} @list l6:level1 lfo108 {mso-level-start-at:6;} @list l6:level1 lfo109 {mso-level-start-at:7;} @list l6:level1 lfo110 {mso-level-start-at:8;} @list l6:level1 lfo111 {mso-level-start-at:9;} @list l6:level1 lfo112 {mso-level-start-at:10;} @list l6:level1 lfo113 {mso-level-start-at:11;} ol {margin-bottom:0cm;} ul {margin-bottom:0cm;} --> </style> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;">The International Congress on Tropical Sericulture Practices, 1988</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;"></span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><b><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></b></p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" >By 1988 a National Sericulture Project (NSP), to be again funded chiefly by the World Bank, was nearing agreement. This was being established not by any State Department of Sericulture but by the Central Silk Board, a semi-autonomous body under the Government of India’s Department of Textiles but based in Bangalore where the State Department of Karnataka also had its headquarters. CSB had been in indirect touch with SDC for a decade by then, as the owner of CSRTI and its SDC-supported ICTRETS in Mysore. It was in effect the manager of the new mega project agreed in 1989. It would control the World Bank’s funding, the crucial lifeblood of all such projects, on its route via the Government of India to its own subordinate institutions, both those already established and the new ones to be created, as well as through State governments to their own Departments and other institutions. Into this large and already complex set-up, SDC entered with its own concerns, values and plans. In funding and oversight, it would be a partner, inevitably minor, of the World Bank; in management it was the CSB of which it would be an uneasy partner.</span><span style="font-family:Arial;"> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--><br /></span></p><p class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-family:Arial;"> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-family:Arial;">In February 1988, with negotiations going ahead, the CSB lavishly hosted, over five days in Bangalore, the International Congress on Tropical Sericulture Practices. Inevitably, the majority of participants came from India, and within India from Bangalore itself, but 23 other countries were represented, some with substantial delegations. Japan, with 11 participants, mainly with commercial affiliations, was prominent; China had sent 6 academics and officials. SDC, joint host for the event, was represented by Dr R. Hager, its Deputy Regional Programme Co-ordinator, and Mrs Nalini Singh, the Programme Officer, both from the Swiss Embassy in New Delhi. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-family:Arial;"><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--><br /></span></p><p class="MsoFootnoteText"><br /><span style="font-family:Arial;"><!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoFootnoteText"><span style="font-family:Arial;">Plenary sessions opened and closed the Congress, and between them were five substantive sessions, of which the first was on Sericulture and Rural Development. Dr Hager was its Vice Chairman and it was here that Nalini Singh presented SDC’s own paper. The prominence given to such a topic was already a marked innovation for a sericultural conference. The usual and more technical sessions were on Moriculture Practices, Silkworm Rearing Practices, Silkworm Seed Production, and Reeling and Processing. There were numerous papers offered for each, ranging from 26 for mulberry and its cultivation – moriculture - to only 11 for the extensive but far less researched post-cocoon fields: reeling, further processing of the raw silk yarn, and weaving. There were contributions from across the sericultural world, as well as a mass from India itself (CSB 1991).<br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style="text-indent: 36pt;"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" >The paper contributed in the first session by SDC’s Regional Programme Coordination Office was itself distinctive. Unlike most throughout the Congress that took for granted in reporting research findings and reviewing achievements the desirability of sericultural development, SDC’s paper was already and characteristically self-questioning. It was sub-titled ‘A development agency’s hopes and doubts about involvement in the promotion of sericulture’. It saw the Congress as ‘a timely occasion for taking stock of SDC’s activities in sericulture, given the presence of experts, managers, administrators and policy makers for deliberations and discussions on the role of sericulture in rural development’. It noted that this was also ‘the main focus of SDC’s activities in this field’ </span><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" >(SDC 1991/1988: 21). It presented 10 ‘hypotheses’, the first four on apparently favourable effects of sericultural development, the remainder, if they were true, pointing to effects which would be regarded, at least by SDC, as unfavourable.</span><u><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><br /><!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></u></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><u><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ></span></u></p><blockquote><p class="MsoNormal" style=""><u><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" >Hypotheses<o:p></o:p></span></u></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><u><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--><br /><!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></u></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" >I<span style=""> </span>Sericulture development leads to improvement in the living standards of a large number of small farmers and landless families.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" >II<span style=""> </span>Mulberry is an ideal crop for supporting soil and water conservation measures in a given area.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" >III<span style=""> </span>Sericulture provides a basis for producing large quantities of textiles from local renewable natural resources.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><span style=""> </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" >IV<span style=""> </span>Sericulture has the potential to increase foreign exchange earnings of India. </span></p></blockquote><p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" >Each was followed by a short discussion which included caveats. For the first, for example, it noted that it ‘might be totally or at least partly invalid if Government does not assist with schemes favouring small farmers and landless groups’. Here issues which would come to the fore a decade or more later were both foreseen and, in effect, discounted, at least for the time being. They wrote that if the ‘four hypotheses are valid, and the related conditions are fulfilled, we believe that sericulture development in India is compatible with our own development objectives and therefore justifies SDC’s involvement’ (SDC 1991/1988: 21-22).<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" >The other six hypotheses referred to possible adverse effects. These were: first, for women in families, increasing the unpaid labour required of them, as well as weakening their position relative as increased cash income remained in male hands (V); second, for ‘resourceless households’, these might be further marginalised and exploited as disparities between themselves and the wealthy, able to invest, were increased (VI); third, a diversion of land from food to mulberry production (VII); fourth, making rural incomes increasingly dependent on unstable luxury markets for silk goods (VIII); fifth, mechanisation leading to unemployment of rearers, reelers and weavers (IX); and sixth, leading to mulberry monoculture and attendant dangers to both crops and soil in the long-run (X). <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" >With hindsight, not all these potential issues look equally perceptive. They do, however, draw attention to the interaction of diverse factors that should ideally have been kept in mind if development were to be judged by the effects it could have for the society in which it was to take place. SDC had found in their experience of sericultural schemes that there was ‘a paucity of information and data’ which could bear on these issues. They wanted the CSB to develop a system to collect and analyse evidence in future and to make recommendations to ‘the various agencies concerned’. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" >The Rural Development session was well supported. It had attracted 15 papers and its discussions were extended to a concurrent session in the same afternoon. Such was the interest and enthusiasm generated by the day’s airing of topics that Dr Hager then proposed that the discussion be continued as a working party on the following day. This met with immediate agreement: Mrs Leena Mahendale, an interested IAS officer from Maharashtra, was elected to chair the working party, and Sanjay Sinha, a development consultant from New Delhi as rapporteur. The Working Group produced a concise and wide-ranging set of 7 recommendations ‘to all authorities and bodies concerned with the promotion of sericulture’. SDC’s spirit of questioning and its call to CSB itself to take up the collection of relevant evidence specifically on the potentially difficult subjects it had identified were, however, not taken up - and even they appear not yet to have registered that child labour was an issue. The Working Group’s recommendations also went beyond the SDC paper in the range of its topics. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" >Nevertheless there is little doubt that the SDC role in this first session and the Congress more generally had been a good deal more significant than the formal record of Proceedings (CSB 1991/1988) itself reveals. In any case, they were already yet more deeply involved with India’s sericulture. They decided, for good or for ill, to go along with the scheme the CSB was proposing: they would become partners in the National Sericulture Project. Their contributions would remain distinctive and they would prove challenging partners in the longer run too.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /></p><p class="MsoNormal"><br /><span style=";font-family:Arial;font-size:10pt;" ><o:p></o:p></span></p>Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-14930096536356670742010-04-24T23:56:00.000-07:002010-12-01T23:34:16.824-08:00The Swiss in South Indian Sericulture - 1<span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: verdana;font-size:100%;" >Beginnings</span><span style="font-size:100%;"><br /><br /><span style="font-family: verdana;">On 30th September 1980, the Swiss interest in supporting the South Indian silk industry was for the first time on public display. Harald Borner, Chargé d’Affaires at the Swiss Embassy in New Delhi, was the Special Guest at the inauguration of ICTRETS at CSRTI in Mysore. ICTRETS is the International Centre for Training and Research in Tropical Sericulture. It was to provide training for people from other countries in the distinctive sericulture of tropical regions, as well as of Indian students, and was attached to the Mysore Central Sericulture Research & Training Institute. This was the leading such institute in South Asia, its roots going back to the 1920s. Borner, in his speech, paid glowing tribute to India’s progress in sericultural research. </span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: verdana;">The Swiss development agency, SDC standing for Swiss Development Co-operation, had recently entered into the first of what was to prove a long series of agreements with the Government of India to provide funding ‘to support the uplift of the rural masses’ (Sinha & Sagar 2007: 31). At this starting point they intended to do this somewhat indirectly. They were joining the World Bank as partners in providing refinance for the Indian Government’s own Agricultural Refinance & Development Corporation, in support of its provision of farm loans. Switzerland was a small but wealthy European nation, with a proverbial concern with banking and an interest in the rich silk trade, but no history of sericultural practice of its own. As a later head of the New Delhi office explained, Switzerland had, in Zurich and St Gallen, major trading places for silk and silk products. With Lyons in France and Como in Italy, they were ‘key players in international silk marketing and/or manufacturing’. In 1978, Mr Trudi, ‘one of the famous silk traders from Zurich, a so-called “silk-baron’’’, had suggested Mysore as ‘an outstanding centre for tropical sericulture which could become a centre of excellence with a little help’ (Heierli 1995). This influential opinion sparked ICTRETS and the particular interest in nurturing and improving silk production as an appropriate addition to its new and more general interest in Indian development, as well as to its wider international outreach. </span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: verdana;">Even in the agricultural refinance scheme, it was the ‘small farmers’ and socio-economic benefits which were the particular concerns of the Swiss. In his inaugural address for ICTRETS Borner referred to SDC’s own programmes – not only in India - which ‘laid stress on rural development to increase productive employment opportunities, to promote handicrafts and small industry and also, as a long term objective, to search for and preserve an ecological and demographic balance’. More widely, they had projects which included cattle breeding and dairy development, training for research in universities, skilled manpower development for industries, and, in rural development, particularly minor irrigation (Indian Silk 1980 19, 6: 13-15). An Indo-Swiss Tasar Silk development project was also already in preparation. It is clear that a fit with sericulture was already seen. They were going well beyond refinance and credit, though this would continue as a major area of their general concern in India (Sinha & Sagar 2007). The list of interests from that inaugural day would continue to have echoes in SDC’s diversifying involvement with sericulture over the following quarter century. </span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: verdana;">Characteristically, SDC’s support for ICTRETS was participative. It went beyond merely funding what an institution wanted to do with the money, or at least was prepared to do with it. As Mukund Kirsur put it in his later report, ICTRETS ‘bloomed as a result of scientific-technical co-operation between India and Switzerland’ in ‘a unique experiment in international co-operation’. SDC’s own Programme Officer, Smt Chitkala Zutshi, participated in assessment of the programme. After the completion of the first course that was taught she travelled, with the eminent former Director of CSTRI, Dr M.S. Jolly, to countries whose students had participated, ‘to assess the impact as well as their individual requirements of the training’ (1988: 18-19). Some Rs 35 million where provided over the 14 years of the collaboration which ended in 2004. </span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: verdana;">1980 was also the year in which an extensive Karnataka Sericulture Project (KSP1), set up by the State’s Department of Sericulture (DoS) and supported by the World Bank, began. It was a 5-year project but it was to be 8 years before it was finally closed. SDC did not participate in it and it was only towards the end of the decade that it took on further involvements with the mainsteam southern mulberry silk industry. </span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: verdana;">The first of these were Mulberry Sericulture Development Projects to be implemented with the State Governments of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. Their sericulture industries were small in comparison to Karnataka’s – which at the time was producing about 70% of India’s entire output – and the size and scope of the SDC projects were also relatively small. The projects, which subsequently came to be known in SDC as ‘APTN’, were made up of a range of smaller initiatives closely linked to the specifics of the fields. The total budget was initially about Rs 3 crores over the first 3-year phase, of which the bulk, about 84%, was to be contributed by SDC. </span><br /><span style="font-family: verdana;">Both were tailored to particular needs and interests in their States. They were rather more – if also a lot less – than merely attempts to catch up with Karnataka’s large-scale KSP and its apparent successes.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: verdana;">Their small-scale schemes were, specially in Tamil Nadu, often experimental. There they were largely paid for by the Tamil Nadu Government itself. The only schemes on both lists were disinfection of rearing houses - always crucial in sericulture. There were mobile units to travel round attending to individuals’ rearing and demonstrating how it should be done. Though ‘chawki’ rearing for the sensitive early stages of silkworm rearing also appeared in both projects, for Andhra it was to be for centres of the established kind, run by the still overwhelmingly male Sericulture Department (DoS); for Tamil Nadu it was for something new, a chawki-rearing co-operative society exclusively for women. This was one of three women’s schemes for Tamil Nadu. Another was also a co-operative but for silk reeling, and the third a silk reeling and spinning centre. Reeling, which had had been more or less ignored in the Karnataka Sericulture Project, appeared prominently in the Andhra list: there were units of 25 ‘twin charkas’, backed with necessary facilities and to be occupied by groups of reelers; training for reeling; and specialised dupion reeling units. They were to try a scheme for the private distribution of the silkworm eggs produced in government grainages. The Tamil Nadu list also included incentives for leading farmers to persuade their neighbours to take up sericulture, and loans for Sericulture extension staff to buy mopeds and bicycles to improve their mobility in the field. There were also to be mobile cocoon markets. </span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: verdana;">In AP, finally, there was a cautious move in the direction of bivoltine rearing, the great and conspicuously unsuccessful preoccupation of KSP1 and of its successor the National Sericulture Project. 100 ‘small and marginal farmers’ in one District of Andhra Pradesh were to be aided in following up the first successes of 12 others who already had their mulberry fields and were by mid 1988 already producing bivoltine cocoons (Pasha 1988: 26-29). </span></span>Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-32074233158319545642010-04-23T11:50:00.000-07:002013-04-27T08:57:18.412-07:00Pursuit of a bivoltine revolution (4)<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:donotoptimizeforbrowser/> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ 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<span style="font-size: small;"><b><span style="font-family: Arial;">The Karnataka Sericulture Project<o:p></o:p></span></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Initial discussions between the World Bank and the Department of Sericulture - in the person of its new Director, V. Balasubramaniam - began in July 1977, at an optimistic period. It took until the less secure moment in 1979 for the international teams to arrive in Bangalore for the required Pre-Appraisal and Appraisal Missions. Problems were probably not yet very apparent, however, and as the Staff Appraisal Report dated May 1980 showed, the case for World Bank support had been well worked out. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The Bank was persuaded, as it needed to be, that sericulture in India had great achievements to its credit, was already promising but was in need of outside support to achieve even greater and definitely worthwhile things for the country, its economy and its employment-hungry rural people. The gap in yield and quality between Indian and Japanese silk showed how much was to be done; what had already been achieved that it could be. With hindsight the Report makes interesting reading for the thoroughness of its investigation but also the optimism, indeed wishful thinking, that suffused it. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">As regards bivoltine silk, looking to future international trade the Bank was persuaded of the necessity of gearing the industry up for its production. They reported that ‘the rearing of bivoltines was initially beset by many problems, but successful intensive research [had] provided solutions and led to introduction of the Japanese method of communal hatcheries locally known as Chawki centers.’ These were essential for the demanding rearing of bivoltines, and their introduction had ‘increased cocoon yields by an estimated 20% over farm-hatched silkworms’. ‘CSRTI work was largely responsible for adapting this Japanese innovation to Karnataka conditions’. Furthermore, ‘as a result of close collaboration between CSRTI and the Government of Karnataka Department of Sericulture, use of unimproved local varieties’ of silkworm was, they were convinced, ‘being phased out rapidly’. ‘Foreign technical assistance and training’ would play an important part’ (World Bank 1980: 7 (1.24)). There was to be more and better of almost everything. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Grainages did not receive quite the precedence in this 1980 Report that the intended 1,700 ‘communal hatcheries’ had, but were, for bivoltine silk aspirations, crucial. The private grainages on which adequate provision of layings for commercial rearing mainly depended might be ‘adequate to deal with relatively hardy local varieties, but many of them are not capable of consistent production of disease-free layings of more disease-susceptible modern varieties’. What was required was more and better government grainages in which reliable bivoltine silkworm seed could be produced, at least to strengthen the Department’s hand in demanding better quality from the private lsps. The project would finance ten ‘large modern grainages’. They were to become iconic, but not in any way that might have been planned. ‘Each one would be a four-floor building with 3,200 m<sup>2</sup> floor area, specifically designed and equipped for aseptic production of 10 million disease-free layings per year’. Seven of them would include cold stores to allow ‘year-round production and build-up of stocks for the peak demand period following the onset of rains’. They would have stand-by generators to deal with power outages, a familiar hazard. The first two were to be completed in 1982/83 and four more in each of the following two years. At best it would therefore not be until after the initial five years of the project that they would be fully operational. By then ‘project technical assistance and overseas training programmes’ to support the ‘modern operating and quality control methods for the new facilities’ should be available (WB 1980: 16 (3.08)). All but the largest of existing government grainages would be swept away or converted to ‘egg sale centers’, their original function to be taken over by the new generation of mammoth grainages. Size apparently was the panacea of the moment. Several would turn out to be monuments to failed aspiration. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">KSP implementation began in effect somewhat ahead of the formal approval by the World Bank in June 1980 and the clearing of funding in December. It had ‘four major objectives’: ‘to increase raw silk production in Karnataka by about 1,600 tons including 1,000 tons of high quality , by providing better silkworm eggs and intensive advisory services to sericulturists …’; ‘to introduce modern processing facilities and methods that would upgrade raw and spun silk to export grade quality; and, for longer term improvement of the industry, to introduce the latest technologies from leading silk producing countries and to expand local research’. The project was scheduled to end in March 1985 after rather under five years, but key aspects of the planned unrolling of the Project took longer than expected. The expected closure date was extended three times and actually achieved only in September 1988 after about nine years (World Bank Project Completion Report 1991: 16). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Almost everything to do with the bivoltine side of the project was amongst the slowest to progress and often most problematic. A review by the leader of the Sericulture Department’s team in 1982 found that, in contrast to the Bank’s optimism on this score, even if seed production were increasing – and the figures here are, as ever, confusing – ‘effective utilisation for bivoltine hybrid preparation could not be made, due to various reasons’. The bivoltine ‘venture’ had not ‘progressed at the desired rate’; the programme needed ‘a thorough revision, so that a more meaningful approach to the various problems could be arrived at’. Neither the ‘various problems’ nor the ‘various reasons’ were pursued here: it was not that they were unknown to the author, though there were few others at the time had the necessary range of experience across the functionally linked fields of silk production - from growing mulberry and producing silkworm ‘seed’, through to the reeling of cocoons for raw silk. It was apparently not in anyone’s interests at this point to assemble what would certainly have been a daunting catalogue. The complexities of securing consistently good results in the final, reeling stage, for instance, had been well publicised for bivoltine cocoons early in the Bivoltine Programme years by Government Reeling Expert, N.R. Madhava Rao (see <i>IS</i> 14, 7, 1975: 7-11, 15. Madhava Rao ) who was the son of Navaratna Rama Rao, the first Indian Superintendent of Sericulture and pioneer of sericultural development through the first half of the 20th century. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">What the review picked out was, from the beginning of the chain of production, declining yield from stage to stage in the multiplication of the vast quantity of silkworm seed needed for commercial rearing. At every stage in the process the multiple hazards of practice in the field remained. Problems had not been solved or even seriously tackled. The proposal here was at least to reduce the cumulative effect by cutting the four stages to three (Mahadevappa 1982: 1). Despite the eight years that had passed since the Jubilee, it was still near the beginning of a much longer and more difficult road in producing bivoltine silk than had been realised, let alone for producing the target of 1000 tonnes of it a year. <b><o:p></o:p></b></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Despite the disconcerting experience in Karnataka, it was at this time, 1981/82, that the Department of Sericulture in Tamil Nadu decided to plunge into a Bivoltine Programme of the same sort. They distributed about 5 lakhs of bivoltine hybrid layings in selected areas with mixed but not disastrous results. ‘But the programme could not pick up’. The reasons identified were to do with the prices that could be realised for the cocoons. One was that the extent of defective ‘melted’ cocoons in batches when they came to market meant that reelers were unwilling to pay good prices for them. Even if that was not a problem, there was no ‘preferential price’ for them as compared with the ordinary multivoltines. Rearers were unwilling therefore to risk bivoltine rearing at all. They felt also that, with the reeling technology available at the time, it would not be possible even with good bivoltine cocoons to produce international grade silk. The CSB experts seem to have been of that same opinion earlier but to have changed their minds. This was probably, the TN Department thought, to do with the high cost of importing suitable machinery. An essential first step was therefore to get ‘sophisticated reeling machinery’ manufactured locally. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">May 1983 saw <i>IS</i> with yet another, if confusing, announcement of ‘white revolution’: ‘Research breakthrough ushers in white revolution’. The cocoons were pictured in quantity on its sepia cover. They were now, however, not the white BV hybrids of the 1970s revolution but the golden multivoltine hybrids, the ‘Improved CB’ obtained by crossing the CSRTI’s relatively New Bivoltine races such as Kalimpong, NB<sub>4</sub>D<sub>2</sub>, NB<sub>7</sub>, NB<sub>18</sub> with Mysore race female moths. ‘Thus’, proclaimed the eminent sericultural scientist, former CSRTI Director and author, Dr S. Krishnaswami, ‘the new bivoltine races evolved by the author have revolutionised the sericulture industry of Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu, resulting in the renditta coming down from about 14-16 in the past to 10 to 11 currently, which is no doubt a phenomenal achievement of the sericulture industry’. Now over 80% of CB layings were being prepared using these New Bivoltine races. They would not only increase yield and improve renditta; they would also produce international grade silk (<i>IS</i> 22, 1: 3-11). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">In the first issue of <i>IS</i> for 1984 - combined with the last of 1983 - the Director of the Karnataka Sericulture Department, S.R Vijay, appeared in print announcing steps to boost BV silk. This would presumably be under the Karnataka Sericulture Project, though this project of the Karnataka Department receives, not unusually, no mention in the CSB’s publication. ‘As many as 500 villages were being adopted for intensive production of bivoltine. Extension staff were to be trained, and the 90 tonnes achieved in the preceding year might go up by 40 more’. But the current target of 1000 tonnes might still have to be revised (22, 8&9: 21). <o:p></o:p></span></div>
Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-12601147541585383682010-04-23T08:19:00.000-07:002013-04-27T08:58:26.527-07:00Pursuit of a bivoltine revolution (3)<span style="font-weight: bold;">The ‘grand march towards progress’</span><br />
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CSB’s magazine for the industry, Indian Silk, had opened its response to the Workshop with an editorial statement that ‘Ministers, economists and planners were unequivocal in assuring all support to the sericultural industry in its grand march towards progress.’ It was not, however, an entirely fortunate moment to be making such assurances. The previous year had seen the end of the Vietnam War but also the USA and USSR gearing up their nuclear arsenals with test explosions, and - most directly relevant - Middle Eastern Muslim nations challenging America and its allies. The oil-producing nations raised the price of oil by 70 percent and set up an embargo on supply to the US and the Netherlands. At the same time, Egypt and Syria attacked Israel. This turned into a devastating defeat for the attackers in what came to be known to the Israelis as their Yom Kippur war. The tensions more generally, and the crisis in oil supply and its rising cost, produced destabilisation and acute inflation across the globe, seriously affecting India amongst others.<br />
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By the time of the celebration in Bangalore in April 1974 therefore, there were cuts in prospect in the promised government expenditure on sericulture’s ‘grand march’ under the 5th 5-Year Plan then beginning. The farmer sericulturists were already being affected by ‘the gnawing shortage of fertilizers’ just as the agents of government were exhorting them to ‘use them progressively as vital input for better output’ of superior mulberry. Efforts to secure a specific allocation of fertiliser for the industry had so far failed. The silk market had also been affected by an embargo on the export of raw silk. This was to support the weaving and garment manufacturing sections of the industry but was likely to be at the cost of returns to reelers and rearers as producers of the raw silk. As reported in IS, these were ‘some of the ticklish questions’ that were ‘somewhat embarrassing’ for the planners. Nevertheless, ‘promises were made and accepted by the industry with stoically docile countenance’. The Silver Jubilee events were considered ‘a grand success since, instead of extolling its own past achievements, the Board sportingly chose to stand face to face with some of the still-existing major problems, and resolutely committed to rededicate itself to their solutions (IS 13, 1: 3).<br />
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For the seminar next day, it was the ‘Bivoltine Revolution’ that led the reporting when it was published in the August number. It had not received more than passing attention earlier. Now, under the somewhat ambiguous headline REARERS OVERWHELMED BY BIVOLTINE REVOLUTION, a boxed comment read:<br />
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The introduction of bivoltine rearing has come as a boon to the rearing comity of Karnataka State.<br />
With their economy geared up, the primary silkmen of the State look at this new programme as the<br />
RICH TREASURE HOUSE and express their gratitude to the Central Sericultural Research & Training Institute (Mysore) for revolutionising the sericulture industry.<br />
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The sericulturists who participated in the seminar also underlined some of the problems faced by them: <br />
those quoted were from two main areas. A rearer from Attibele near Bangalore, who had provided the ‘rich treasure house’ idea, also ‘drew attention of all concerned with State sericulture to the urgent need of providing proper grainage facilities’, both public sector and private. This, like most of the other six contributions, was referring to the need for good supplies of layings, available at the right time, from which bivoltine rearing could proceed. Providing an adequate supply to match the exhortation to take it up that was going on had clearly been a widespread problem, within the general problem of shortages identified by Chief Minister Devaraj Urs.<br />
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From the perspective of the would-be bivoltine rearers there were other problems too. A rearer from a village in Maddur Taluk of Mandya District noted that bivoltine had been reared successsfully and income ‘doubled up’, but added the other two general and basic themes expressed in the feedback: mulberry and the fertilizer needed for it, and disease prevention. As well as the need for improved supply of layings, bivoltine rearing had more demanding requirements for mulberry, both in the prodigious quantity of leaves that would have to be available at the late stages of bivoltine rearing and for the high quality of nutrition for which superior varieties would be required. Replacing the old mulberry gardens with new varieties was a major enterprise that would take time to achieve (IS 13, 1, 1974: 21).<br />
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Indian Silk’s respondent also noted that ‘proper preventive measures’ against silkworm diseases ‘should be suggested to farmers’. Another, the progressive rearer that the study tour had visited in Kolar District where bivoltine rearing had most quickly been successful, was enthusiastic, but he also added to his concern with disease a call for CSRTI to open more extension centres ‘to provide guidance for the needy poor rearers who had not benefited from it so far’. From the same region, another wanted motor vehicles so that ‘quick transporting facilities’ could be ‘extended to extension workers’ to enable them to supervise rearing, but again he also wanted ‘proper disinfection arrangements’ to be ‘made available to rearers’. He was also thinking in terms of ‘low interest loans to be given to rearers to construct spacious and hygienic rearing houses’.<br />
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All this represents forward thinking amongst the early adopters of the intended bivoltine revolution. To them it was not just the externally induced fertilizer shortage that was worrying but basic issues of food supply for the worms and of protection against disease to which bivoltine worms were generally considered to be more susceptible that the established CB worms. There was much supporting research as well as extension still to be done. <br />
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With hindsight, it was undoubtedly over-ambitious to announce the bivoltine revolution as already achieved in 1974. Nevertheless, the CSB did turn attention with some success to the problems of producing adequate bivoltine seed. Over the following four years, as a project under the 5th Plan, it established eleven bivoltine grainages in Karnataka and one each in West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh. There were seven more to come. They were to have a capacity of 10 lakh dfls, one million. Half were to be bivoltine hybrids, half multi-bi hybrids, the latter to be ‘improved CB’ using the male moths for second matings with multivoltine females. The procedure would reduce costs and provide an ‘economic utilisation of the valuable seed material’ (Ranganatha Rao 1978: 63). In 1973/4, two bivoltine ‘races’, called NN6D and KA, were released for rearing in the Anekal bivoltine seed area. The former was replaced three years later by NB4D2. Despite its and KA’s success, a further 3-yearly replacement followed, with NB7 and NB18. In practice these four races continued to be produced and tested at Anekal and all six introduced in these years were ‘continued in the field’. There were pairs in each case since the bivoltine hybrid practice required a separation of ancestry in order to secure heterosis. NB4D2, for instance displayed the dumbell-shaped cocoons of its Japanese ancestry, KA the oval cocoons of its Chinese. In practice, multi-bi rearing remained predominant in commercial production because the yield, at an average of 40-45 kgs per 100 dfls, could not be matched by the bivoltine hybrids with averages at the time of at best 32 kgs. (Mahadevappa 1986: 38-39) <br />
<br />
From the somewhat sheltered viewpoint of the CSB and its research institute in Mysore at least, ‘the floodgate of revolution’ had been ‘flung open’ but what they now meant by this was that ‘the seeds of either the bivoltine or the multivoltine were being reared regularly’. Even the rainfed areas of the southern Karnataka, it was claimed, ‘started switching over to this new wave successfully’ (Ranganatha Rao 1978: 64). Bivoltine seed cocoon production did rise year by year, reaching 1,484 lakhs (148.4 million) by 1980-81. When the eminent B. Sivaraman, Padma Vibushan, was appointed Chairman of CSB in 1983, he was credited in IS (22, 2/3 1983) with having ‘inspired the launching of bivoltine programmes in Karnataka by initiating meaningful research on and by helping to set up silkworm seed grainages for production of bivoltine seed’. Mostly it was continuing, it was said, on ‘lines enunciated by him in the report’ of the Agricultural Commission (nd).<br />
<br />
Sadly, this success with bivoltine seed cocoon production had not been carried through either to the yield in layings or the production of cocoons for commercial reeling from these layings. For that, 1978, the year in which the above optimistic assertion was written by Ranganatha Rao, the CSB Project Co-ordinator, represented a peak. In 1977/78 BV Hybrid layings reached 65 lakhs, compared with 1474 lakhs of CB layings. CSB produced half the BV and 4% of the CB, the State grainages the other half of the BV and 20% of the CB. The remainder was produced by the lsps, Licenced Seed Producers. While the State’s BV production increased over the years, if erraticly, the CSB’s declined, falling as low as 13% in 1980/81, the first year of the Karnataka Sericulture Project (KSP). It was only in 1982/83 that the erratic BV Hybrid production again reached and surpassed the 1978 peak. Conversion of layings into cocoons and from cocoons to raw silk were also both erratic, the overall record in these years being disastrous. (Chandra 1986: 61)Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-50167105060772220242010-04-18T05:47:00.000-07:002013-03-05T08:23:34.306-08:00James Anderson of Madras - 2<h3 class="MsoNormal">
<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:donotoptimizeforbrowser/> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} </style> <b><span style="font-family: ";">Entomology, rearing, reeling and promoting a new industry</span></b></h3>
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<b>I</b><span style="font-family: "; font-size: 10pt;"><b>n his botanical garden </b>James Anderson had begun a collection of, amongst other plants, all known mulberry species. His first venture into the development of commercially useful insects was however his discovery of an Indian insect which he thought capable of yielding the valuable crimson dye of the cochineal insect of the West Indies. When his first hopes turned out to be over-optimistic he turned his attention to importing the original insect and establishing its production in Madras. Discovery of insects related to those from which the Chinese produced lacquer followed. He was convinced that the Madras climate was the best in the world for the management of insects, and, not surprisingly, his attention turned also to the silkworm. By 1790 he was considering the need there would be for mulberry as well as worms if a silk industry was to be established. He was not the first to import worms, as he acknowledges, but they had previously failed, he thought, for lack of proper planning. He therefore set about persuading the East India Company to get its officers, by now being stationed widely in the Nawab's country, to plant mulberry in preparation for the arrival of the worms. It was never, it should be noted, for his own commercial benefit that Anderson pursued his schemes but, in the spirit of the Scottish Enlightenment, for the development of the country and its inhabitants. The primary purpose of the plantations was to act as nurseries, providing the mulberry cuttings with which sericulture could be spread into the villages. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "; font-size: 10pt;">Silkworms were available in Bengal but importing them to Madras was a problem. The only practical way was to ship silkworm eggs from Calcutta but even this could be done only in very favourable circumstances. Anderson had tried on two previous occasions before he finally succeeded. His first batch seems to have hatched in Madras on 14th December 1790. He did not initially know what kind of worms he had imported; at first there was confusion even as to the colour of the cocoons they would produce. But it gradually became clear that there were both white and yellow cocoons, and that there were Bengal worms and China worms. It also only gradually became clear that the period before hatching was not just variable according to temperature but that there were two quite different kinds of worm, monthly worms and annual worms as they came to be called. The yellow turned out to do best in humid conditions, but the white were otherwise superior. The annual white from China was the best of all, but it proved very difficult to get supplies even via Company agents in China. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "; font-size: 10pt;">As to rearing, Anderson learnt about it from people involved in the trade in Bengal whom he entertained in Madras and from books. From one of the latter he learnt of the Chinese method of using nets in rearing. This was not used, and apparently known, in Bengal, but he put it successfully into practice. For the work of rearing he took the services of a hundred or so young girls, orphans belonging to the ‘Female Asylum’ in the city. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "; font-size: 10pt;">Two months after receiving his worms Anderson was already sending silk reeled from their cocoons to London. He had obtained an experienced reeler from Bengal, Mahomed Arif Mulna, and using an illustration in the French <i>Encyclopédie</i> of a Piedmontese reeling machine from what is now Italy, he had his own machine constructed. At the same time he asked the Company in London to send out the latest and best model: by the time it came, however, he had improved his own model and was in no doubt as to its superiority. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "; font-size: 10pt;">Anderson had, it becomes apparent, constituted himself a one-man research and development institute. A renewed war against Mysore was being fought but this time it caused only a modest disruption in the Company's sphere: Anderson was able to apologise for maintaining his attention to 'the arts of peace' even in wartime. He was able, despite it, to use his friendships with particular officers and fellow medical men not on active service to get them to plant mulberry and even to attempt the rearing of worms and reeling the cocoons produced to obtain usable silk yard. At the same time he pestered the Company for support, in Madras where the current Governor was at best unhelpful, and therefore also to England though that was a slow business depending as it did on the long voyages to and fro of ships sailing round the Cape of Good Hope. During 1791, with remarkable speed in the circumstances, he stimulated widespread action right up the east coast and inland too: plantations near Madurai and Trichinopoly, and at Palamcotta, Tyaga Durgam, Arni, Chingleput, Arcot, Vellore, Ambur, Nellore, Ongole, Masulipatam, Chicacole, and Ganjam are recorded and there were probably a few others too. His second volume of letters, the first of the series to include attention to silk, was published in the same year and supplied to all those interested, putting them in the picture and supplying technical advice. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "; font-size: 10pt;">Extension was to be taken care of by an Englishman who had apparently had some sericultural experience in Italy and who happened to be in Madras. Looking forward to the establishment of village sericulture which was always his goal, Anderson obtained an appointment for this man to begin by visiting mulberry gardens in local villages. This was premature in various ways, and his man soon set off instead for Bengal to study the practice of sericulture there. As a result of this he prepared a report which impressed the Directors in London. In 1792 he was offering to run the silk industry in the South, in return for a salary and 10% on the silk produced. A commercial approach at such variance with Anderson's own might well have produced a clash, but the man himself died in that September, either on the voyage back or immediately after his return. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "; font-size: 10pt;">If this was something of a setback, it was events in the political sphere which required a definite change of strategy. The defeat of Mysore in the same year and the ceding of large areas of the south and east of that kingdom to the Company led to the restoration to the Nawab of Arcot of the administration of his territory. Most of the mulberry plantations were within this returned area and it left a resident British presence only in the far north and in Chingleput, their old <i>jagir</i> around and inland from Madras. Many of the plantations were in consequence lost, with no-one to ensure their upkeep, and a new pattern of silk promotion had quickly to be established. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "; font-size: 10pt;">In 1793 the geographical scope of this new strategy had therefore to be more restricted, concentrating more closely around Madras. It was also more official. The new Governor, Sir Charles Oakeley, who had at first been anyway more tolerant of Anderson's schemes, now had powerful backing for his support in instructions that arrived from London. There were two new elements, one the establishment of what amounted to a government silk farm, the other, which was trickier, the encouragement of private sericultural enterprise. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "; font-size: 10pt;">The silk farm was at a place near Tiruvallur where there was a cavalry barracks, then known as Vellout Choultry. Uncultivated land was selected and a Superintendent was appointed. He was a young man named Boswell Parkison, recommended to the Company by Anderson and appointed to run the farm under his direction. He was to live there, to report weekly to Anderson and to be guided by him. Under this arrangement the plantation and buildings and a village for the workers gradually took shape. The first silk was produced in August 1794, though it had to be reeled at Anderson's own establishment in Madras since a team of reelers who had been recruited from Bengal had not yet arrived. They did soon afterwards, and set about training new people for reeling.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "; font-size: 10pt;">Now production - and new problems - began. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-77237373047777371122010-04-18T02:35:00.000-07:002013-04-27T08:59:15.059-07:00Pursuit of a bivoltine revolution (2)<!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:donotoptimizeforbrowser/> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Font Definitions */ @font-face {font-family:"Arial Unicode MS"; panose-1:2 11 6 4 2 2 2 2 2 4; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:swiss; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:-1 -369098753 63 0 4129023 0;} @font-face {font-family:"\@Arial Unicode MS"; panose-1:2 11 6 4 2 2 2 2 2 4; mso-font-charset:128; mso-generic-font-family:swiss; mso-font-pitch:variable; mso-font-signature:-1 -369098753 63 0 4129023 0;} /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; 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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">1974 – CSB and State in Bangalore</span> <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The Silver Jubilee of the Central Silk Board, its home still in Marine Drive, Bombay at the time, was grandly celebrated in Bangalore at the Vidhana Soudha, the magnificent Karnataka State Assembly Building, on 20/22nd April 1974. ‘The central force in Bangalore who masterminded and inspired almost the entire arrangements’ was S. Muniraju, ‘the youthful Vice-Chairman’ of the Board (<i>IS</i> 13, 1: 49). He would himself be the next Chairman, and return again as Chairman in the late 1980s as the NSP began<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn1" name="_ftnref1" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--></span></a>. A team from the Karnataka Department of Sericulture, led by its constantly available Director, Venugopal Nayar, provided the practical local back-up. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">… scores of banners fluttered in the gentle breeze, greeting the guests and hundreds of silkmen congregating at this garden city from almost all over the country. … Silkworm rearers, reelers and weavers from distant villages of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh came in considerable numbers sporting their colourful ceremonial attires and proudly flaunting the jubilee badges of Central Silk Board on their lapels, jubba pockets<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn2" name="_ftnref2" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--></span></a> and, in some cases, on their traditional angavastram<a href="http://www.blogger.com/blogger.g?blogID=8307640894881489670#_ftn3" name="_ftnref3" title=""><span class="MsoFootnoteReference"><!--[if !supportFootnotes]--></span></a>. (<i>IS</i> 13, 1: 23)<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">They had come for a sericultural exhibition or expo, the delegates and guests amongst them also for a General Body Meeting of the CSB and a Sericulture Seminar. The Central Government Minister for Industrial Development and Science & Technology should have been present as the Chief Guest, but he was sick. D. Devaraj Urs, the Karnataka Chief Minister, major supporter of the industry and former Chairman of the Silk Board, should also have been present to release the Silver Jubilee Number of the Board’s magazine, <i>Indian Silk, </i>but for him it was ‘the inevitable tour’, as <i>IS </i>put it, that had taken him away electioneering in Gulbarga in the far north of the state. The organisers, reported as displaying a ‘stance of stoic disappointment’, had substitutes ready. There was, first, a senior cabinet minister of the Central Government from Karnataka, resident in Bangalore and willing to come from his own sick bed to perform key tasks. He was to cut the ribbon inaugurating the Celebration and allowing the masses into the exhibition in the central Banqueting Hall of the Vidhana Soudha. After the ladies of CSRTI in Mysore had provided an invocation, he was to inaugurate the General Body Meeting with a speech and present trophies awarded collectively to the scientists of the Central Tasar Research Station in Ranchi and the CSTRI, Mysore. For the magazine release there was a former State Minister of Sericulture. There were also copies of the <i>Indian Express</i> with a special sponsored supplement to be distributed; the <i>Economic Times </i>with a similar supplement and sponsored in the same way was held up by a delayed flight from Bombay: the following day it was distributed at the inauguration of the Seminar. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The seminar was inaugurated and addressed, at last as planned, by A.C. George, Deputy Minister for Commerce in Central Government. He had previously been briefly in charge of sericulture in that ministry and – the point was made – had come specially from Delhi. As well as his inaugural speech, he presented trophies and merit certificates to 32 top exporters of silk goods, including a special award for silk ties, of spun silk, raw silk and silk waste. There were 12 winners from Bombay, 7 from Bangalore, 5 from Calcutta, 3 from New Delhi, 2 from Madras and Varanasi, and just one – uniquely for raw silk - from Ramanagaram, the major cocoon market and reeling centre of Karnataka (<i>IS</i> 13,1: 43-45). There was a ‘citation brochure’ recording the winning performance of each. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The Board’s Chairman, Inder J. Malhotra, MP, then chaired ‘the colloquy’. The discussions were later described for <i>IS</i> in a tone of surprise, even wonder:<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The most redeeming aspect of this colloquy was that it was not merely confined to some sort of doctrinaire discussions as generally happens. The majority of those who spoke were those who cultivate mulberry, who prepare seed, who rear silkworms, who reel cocoons, who weave cloth and finally those who export the end products. Obviously therefore, they had no qualms to subdue any problems faced by them or exaggerate any of their achievements. They spoke and they spoke matter-of-factly. If they were a little attacking in their approach they were equally placid in making points as they expected the planners and scientists not to look askance at problems, but to appreciate their ‘pinches’ as they were the actual wearers of the shoe. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Top officials of the States, planners, economists and researchers interspersed in the discussions and dealt with the points raised by speakers in right earnest. The colloquy covered everything that matters in sericulture sphere. Right from the selection of mulberry, irrigation, seed, bivoltine rearing – down to the import of seed and technical know-how and export of fabrics and allied products – were discussed in depth with animated details. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Deputy Minister Ansari, in his valedictory address, described the seminar as a ‘”healthy clash” of ideas that would serve as beacon to the future planning for the orderly development of sericulture industry’. A series of such seminars should be organised ‘so that the primary producers at the grass-root could avail of its benefits’. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">Plaques for the Best Silkman of the Year Award were then presented. There were awards for mulberry gardens, dry and irrigated and in seed areas; for ‘best rearers’ of seed cocoons of Mysore and of Foreign Race and of cross breed and bivoltines; for graineurs; and for reelers, charkha, cottage basin and filatures. There were at least three recipients in most categories, mostly individuals and coming from different areas. Reeling recipients were Muslim, the rest Hindu. There were some winners ‘mellowed with age and experience’, but also many young sericulturists, indicating the ‘”urbane” stance in the hands of educated and progressive youth’ to which the industry was turning. ‘While mulberry growers, rearers and reelers showed up with beaming pride to receive the coveted plaques from the honoured guest, one very much missed the weavers at this juncture!’ <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The following day, two coach loads of delegates were taken on a sericultural study tour. They went first to Devanahalli, north of Bangalore, to visit the CSB’s extension centre and appreciate the place’s links back to Tipu Sultan. They went on to nearby Vijayapura for its cocoon market with bivoltine transactions on display and two private sector operations, one a grainage run by a silk export house which also had a shop in Bangalore, the other an NGO-run filature. Both had won CSB plaques. The next stop, also a plaque recipient, was a private filature at Melur, a small but renowned silk village of this same sericulturally advanced and enterprising area. The final visit was to a well-known progressive rearer nearby, successful and very satisfied with bivoltine rearing and its opportunities. They took in a drive up Nandi Hill for the views and the cooling breeze of this miniature hill station not far off, before returning to the city. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">There had also been cultural programmes, including a play, <i>Silku-Sampattu</i>, ‘an engaging entertainment’ telling a mythological story of how God endowed humanity with silk and how the industry, with international co-operation, could progress. This was sponsored by the same company whose grainage had been visited on the study tour in Vijayapura. The final evening was again eventful. The exhibition was closed with a ceremony performed by the Speaker of the Karnataka Legislature, Shrimati Nagarthnamma, herself associated with sericulture and once Karnataka representative on the Board. As she toured the exhibition news came that Devaraj Urs, the Chief Minister, was himself about to arrive back from Gulbarga. He then spent an hour going round the stalls as an extra and impromptu function was organised. He was welcomed by the Chairman and in reply, speaking mainly in Kannada, he gave a short and ‘down-to-earth resumé of the problems confronting the sericulture industry in Karnataka’. The major one, he said, was the supply of silkworm seed: ‘the present set-up … did not meet even half the demand’. Seed organisation in the state needed to be overhauled, and the CSB should help the State with this. He then presented certificates to the exhibitors, ‘acknowledging their valuable and effective participation’, and the Jubilee celebration finally came to an end. <o:p></o:p></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial; font-size: 10pt;">The whole event was a memorable success, described with relish in the following number of the CSB’s monthly magazine, <i>Indian Silk</i> (Vol. 13, 1, 1974), from which the account above is largely drawn. As far as Bangalore was concerned it signalled the CSB’s arrival, though it would be seven years before it finally moved its centre of operations from Bombay/Mumbai to the city.<o:p></o:p></span></div>
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Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-70759416027593938682010-04-17T09:05:00.000-07:002010-12-01T23:45:37.058-08:00James Anderson of Madras<a onblur="try {parent.deselectBloggerImageGracefully();} catch(e) {}" href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRH-eWuaRVVUIlJOvmIpensX6f8csnspYEipulUHk6pD3sJnwdkkCyJLH_bsapMDchB_gfC_UWvSZX_EX9DYlmcxYmcryvRmXHJsZn4b7mFfzmkB7AzH-hXHsF3d4GWLwFmYrrY8KYF7qm/s1600/Chen0006e.jpg"><img style="float: right; margin: 0pt 0pt 10px 10px; cursor: pointer; width: 246px; height: 320px;" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRH-eWuaRVVUIlJOvmIpensX6f8csnspYEipulUHk6pD3sJnwdkkCyJLH_bsapMDchB_gfC_UWvSZX_EX9DYlmcxYmcryvRmXHJsZn4b7mFfzmkB7AzH-hXHsF3d4GWLwFmYrrY8KYF7qm/s320/Chen0006e.jpg" alt="" id="BLOGGER_PHOTO_ID_5461139292983286770" border="0" /></a><br /><!--[if gte mso 9]><xml> <w:worddocument> <w:view>Normal</w:View> <w:zoom>0</w:Zoom> <w:donotoptimizeforbrowser/> </w:WordDocument> </xml><![endif]--><style> <!-- /* Style Definitions */ p.MsoNormal, li.MsoNormal, div.MsoNormal {mso-style-parent:""; margin:0cm; margin-bottom:.0001pt; mso-pagination:widow-orphan; font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family:"Times New Roman";} @page Section1 {size:612.0pt 792.0pt; margin:72.0pt 90.0pt 72.0pt 90.0pt; mso-header-margin:36.0pt; mso-footer-margin:36.0pt; mso-paper-source:0;} div.Section1 {page:Section1;} --> </style> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" ><span style="font-weight: bold;">Introduction</span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" >At the time two hundred years ago when Tipu Sultan was introducing sericulture in Mysore, in Madras a Scottish doctor was attempting the same thing. This was James Anderson, the Physician-General, who successfully imported silkworms from Bengal in December 1790, and for the next six years he tried to galvanise the East India Company and his fellow Europeans and Indians into silk production. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" ><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" >His efforts are of particular interest for two reasons. One is that he quickly met many of the problems which have become only too familiar to succeeding generations of sericultural developers, right down to the present; the other is that we can know his experience in rich and exceptional detail. This is because by the time he turned to sericulture he had developed the practice of publishing small volumes of the letters he exchanged energetically with others on whatever he was trying to accomplish - and in the last twenty or so years of his life his projects were numerous. He then circulated these volumes to his correspondents and others whom he wanted to interest. Those who suddenly found their letters in print were sometimes taken aback, but it proved an effective means of sharing problems and proposing solutions to them which would not only interest but also assist others. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" ><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" >After Tipu, Anderson may therefore be considered the second great sericultural enthusiast of southern India. It is usually thought that, unlike Tipu, his enthusiasm came to nothing. From a modern perspective it looks as if he was simply wrong in his initial premise that the coast of what is now Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh was not only a possible place for the silkworm to flourish but the best. It is true that the East India Company abandoned its schemes to introduce sericulture there. Recent research is suggesting, however, that this is not the whole story. It seems increasingly likely that silkworm rearing further inland, for which he provided the stimulus, did continue in the region that would become Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, and provided the basis for its revival there in the nineteenth century. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" ><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" >James Anderson was born in 1738, near Edinburgh in Scotland. His father was a doctor and he himself studied medicine at Edinburgh University, at the time a great centre for the flourishing of the liberal, humanitarian and philosophical movement known as the Scottish Enlightenment. He joined the East India Company as a ship's surgeon at the young age of twenty-one, finding himself on his first voyage in 1759 attending at the siege of Surat, and on his second voyage at the siege of Manila in the Philippines two years later. He then received appointment as Assistant-Surgeon in Madras in 1765, settling there for the rest of his life. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" ><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" >At the time Madras was still a small place, just the Fort and the Black Town to the north of it - which much later became George Town - and a scatter of European bungalows to the south and west. It was within a <i>jagir</i> - afterwards Chingleput District - which the Company had been granted two years before by the Nawab of Arcot. He was the official Moghul ruler of a vast area of the South known as the Carnatic. Madras itself was settling down after a turbulent era in which the English Company had finally defeated their European rivals in India, the French, taken over Bengal, dominated the Nawab in the South, and were indeed the rising power in the sub-continent as a whole. To the west, however, their emerging rival, Hyder Ally, was consolidating his powerful base in the kingdom of Mysore, and to the north Hyderabad and the Marathas were the two other great powers. In the wider world, North America was still British - though not for much longer - and the French Revolution had not yet occurred. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" ><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" >Little is known about Anderson's earlier years in Madras. He no doubt carried out his medical responsibilities, progressing in time to the senior position of Physician-General. He perhaps also himself made at least some money, though the amount was probably modest for a European in India at the time; at any rate he subsequently had some resources with which to support his development enterprises. As the years passed he seems increasingly to have turned his attention to scientific interests, particularly botanical and entomological. He obtained from the government a piece of waste land just outside the town to the west and there started a botanical garden. But the peaceful years were shattered in 1780 when war with Mysore suddenly brought enemy troops to the outskirts of the town itself. A prolonged struggle with Hyder ensued, devastating a wide area around Madras before peace was finally concluded in 1783. By then Hyder had died and his son, Tipu Sultan, had replaced him. The war had combined with drought to cause years of famine, death and a great depopulation of the countryside. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" ><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" >This was the background to development projects in the decade following. Their scope was affected by the handing over of the administration of the Carnatic by the Nawab to the Company in the course of the war. The trigger for this was debt and the motive revenue, but in practice its significance was limited since the Company did not yet have either the means for administering so vast an area or even much idea as to how to set about it. It meant in practice mainly that there came to be British officers and medical men scattered at important and strategic places around the Nawab's country. The better amongst them were very aware of its sad state in the aftermath of war and famine and were interested in doing something constructive for the future. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" ><br /></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" >Anderson’s background and the context in which he was trying to develop a silk industry in Madras have been outlined here. Efforts, succcesses and setbacks will be explored in further posts.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style=""><br /><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" ><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal" style=""><span style=";font-family:";font-size:10pt;" ><!--[if !supportEmptyParas]--> <!--[endif]--><o:p></o:p></span></p>Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-8307640894881489670.post-19350606773458798312010-04-16T08:48:00.000-07:002010-12-01T23:47:05.741-08:00Research and the pursuit of a bivoltine revolution1: Beginnings<br /><br /><span style="font-size:85%;">Yonemura’s research of 1919/20 into crossing the ‘indigenous’ multivoltine silkworms with Japanese bivoltines and using first-generation cross-bred eggs for commercial rearing was the key element in the third stage of the industry’s development. This was using a familiar and rather general effect, ‘hybrid vigour’ or <span style="font-style: italic;">heterosis</span>. With the local Pure Mysore as the mother moth, crossed with a newly imported Japanese bivoltine race, </span><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-style: italic;">C.nichi</span>, </span><span style="font-size:85%;"> for the male parent, </span><span style="font-size:85%;">a striking advance in productivity was achieved. For these silkworms the effect was so robust that it soon came almost to be taken for granted.<br /><br />An elaborate, controlled system for the production of adequate quantities of the Pure Mysore stock was set up and maintained, but the supply of the bivoltine parent, usually identified simply as ‘Foreign Race’, received much less attention. Over the years it deteriorated to the extent that the hybrid worms sometimes became less productive for commercial rearing than Pure Mysore by itself would have been. </span> <span style="font-size:85%;"><br /><br />It was therefore as something thought of as altogether new and different to the old and failing ‘CB’, cross-bred, that a Bivoltine Programme – the term now used commonly for the first time - was started in the early 1970s. Previously it had been the view of the sericultural scientists that bivoltine hybrid rearing was not possible in the main South Indian sericultural areas. Dr S. Krishnaswami, in charge of the Mysore Central Sericulture Research Institute in the 1960s, had focused his institute’s research on silkworm crop losses and other causes for poor productivity. He identified the main reason as defective rearing and set about establishing methods that would be much more effective (Krishnaswami 1978). In breeding an NB (New Bivoltine) series for crossing with Mysore race mother moths, he almost incidentally demonstrated in the 1970s that superior bivoltine races could be produced and maintained in India as well as in Japan and other leading sericultural countries (Indian Silk 22, 1, 1983: 3-11). <br /><br />This breeding success now provided the confidence needed for a more ambitious policy aim of producing bivoltine silk by crossing bivoltine races, rather than better multivoltine silk such as might result from improving the established practice of CB rearing. Bivoltine silk, from Japan and overwhelmingly from China, was the kind which dominated the international silk trade and offered the qualities by which fitness for that trade was measured. Hybrid vigour was still to be exploited but now by combining bivoltine races, usually mating a race of Japanese origin with another of Chinese. They were distinguished in shape: the Chinese were oval and the Japanese waisted, in a shape called ‘dumbbell’ and spelled variously in India. <br /><br />The first trials began at CSRTI in Mysore in the early 1970s. Unlike the original CB, there was no priority for the mother moth and they could therefore be crossed in either direction: both male and female moths of each race could therefore be used. Commercial rearing began in 1973-74 in Karnataka, the next year in Tamil Nadu and in 1977-78 in Andhra Pradesh (Mahadevappa 1982).</span>Simon Charsleyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04835904497238610850noreply@blogger.com0